LIBRARY 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA 


Class 


OUTLINES 


IN 


NATURE  STUDY 


FOR    THE 


PRIMARY  AND  INTERMEDIATE  GRADES 


BY 


WILLIAM   HITTELL   SHERZER,  PH.  D., 

PROFESSOR  OF  NATURAL  SCIENCE 
MICHIGAN  STATE  NORMAL  COLLEGE. 


of  THE 
UNIVERSITY 

OF 


PUBLISHED  AND  COPYRIGHTED  BY 

THE    NORMAL    COLLEGE    NEWS 

YPSILANTI,  MICHIGAN 

1907 


sl 
Lh 


GENERAL 


FOREWORD. 


In  the  outlines  here  given  definite  form  there  are  represented  the  observation,  experimen- 
tation and  deliberation  of  some  fifteen  years'  connection  with  the  Michigan  State  Normal  Col- 
lege. They  are  the  outcome  of  an  attempt  to  discover  the  fundamental  interests  of  the  child, 
the  subject  matter  of  the  Nature  Course  suggested  by  these  interests  and  the  principles 
underlying  its  presentation.  Incidentally  there  is  revealed  the  ideal  relation  to  the  Nature 
Work  of  the  thought  and  expression  subjects  of  the  primary  school,  including  the  manual  arts 
and  domestic  science.  The  course  here  presented  has  been  nowhere  given  as  now  outlined, 
but  nearly  all  the  topics  suggested  have  been  successsully  tried  in  many  schools.  If  the  course 
is  found  to  possess  anything  of  merit  it  is  only  because  of  the  organization  of  material  col- 
lected from  many  different  sources  and  its  adjustment  to  the  interests  and  capacities  of  the 
child's  mind.  Acknowledgments  are  due  to  those  authors  whose  works  are  cited  in  the  various 
reference  lists. 

The  continuous  observation  of  typical  children  will  convince  any  one  that  the  mental 
powers  and  interests  of  individuals  are  unfolded  according  to  a  general  law.  This  law  appears 
to  be  the  same  as  that  which  governed  the  development  of  the  mental  powers  and  interests  of 
the  race  in  its  attempt  to  secure  a  mastery  over  Nature.  The  solution  of  the  problem  has 
necessarily  followed  evolutionary  lines,  and  the  steps  in  the  reasoning  are  given  in  the  first 
four  chapters.  The  course  of  study  outlined  in  the  last  two  chapters  differs  markedty  from 
those  proposed  by  the  followers  of  Herbart  in  that  the  basis  of  the  work  of  the  primary  school 
is  found  in  the  Nature  Study  rather  than  in  Literature  and  History.  The  expression  of  the 
race  has  been  perfected  and  embellished  by  these  last  two  subjects,  but  they  themselves 
were  the  outgrowth  of  man's  contact  with  Nature,  and  in  the  early  stages  of  presentation  to 
the  child  must  acknowledge  this  relationship.  Courses  of  study  themselves  are  undergoing  a 
process  of  evolution,  and  the  author  believes  that  in  the  preparation  and  presentation  of  this 
one  he  is,  at  least,  looking  in  the  direction  in  which  such  development  is  to  take  place.  Lack 
of  space  has  prevented  the  elaboration  of  the  various  topics  proposed,  so  that  rather  full  refer- 
ence lists  are  given  for  the  benefit  of  those  teachers  who  may  feel  the  need  of  help  in  outlining 
the  actual  lessons.  An  examination  of  the  results  to  be  secured  will  show  that  the  work  out- 
lined is  to  reach  the  intellect  as  well  as  the  emotions  of  the  child,  and  be  made  to  serve  as  a 
substantial  basis  for  the  elementary  science  of  the  grammar  grades  and  high  school.  President 
Stanley  Hall  has  aptly  remarked,  what  so  many  teachers  have  felt,  that  Nature  Study  has  suf- 
fered from  effeminization. 


216188 


CHAPTER  I.-THE  MACHINERY  OF  NATURE. 


1  Nothing  perishes  in  this  world,  hut  things  simply  vary  and  change  their  iorm."— Pythagoras. 


As  a  preparation  for  the  Nature  Study  of  the  elementary  schools  the  teacher  who  would 
lay  a  reasonably  solid  foundation  for  her  work  along  this  line  must  acquire,  first,  certain 
fundamental  notions  concerning  Nature's  materials  and  processes.  An  elementary  knowledge 
of  matter  and  energy  is  of  prime  importance. 

A. — Matter.  This  may  be  defined  as  whatever  occupies  space.  A  property  of  all  known 
matter  is  that  it  has  an  attraction  for  every  other  particle  of  matter  in  the  universe  (gravita- 
tion). The  strength  of  this  attraction  depends  upon  the  amount  of  matier  in  the  two  masses 
and  their  distance  apart.  At  the  same  place  upon  the  earth's  surface  the  amount  of  matter  is 
proportional  to  its  actual  weight;  that  is,  the  strength  of  the  attraction  which  the  earth  has 
for  it.  Consider  the  weight  of  bodies  raised  above  the  surface  of  the  earth;  transferred  to 
other  planets. 

All  matter  is  conceived  to  be  made  up  of  very  minute  particles  termed  molecules,  of 
unknown  shape  and  which  even  in  solid  substances  are  separated  by  wide  intervals.  These 
molecules  are  held  in  position  by  their  mutual  attractions  (cohesion),  such  attraction  being 
believed  to  be  different  from  that  of  gravitation.  What  is  adhesion  ?  These  molecules  are 
regarded  as  indivisible  by  any  mechanical  means  but  are  conceived  to  be  made  up  of  still 
smaller  elementary  particles  known  as  atoms  and  held  together  by  still  another  type  of  attrac- 
tion known  as  chemical  affinity.  These  atoms  are  the  units  that  take  part  in  chemical  combin- 
ations but  they  are  no  longer  believed  to  be  simple  in  their  structure.  They  ar^  conceived  to 
be  aggregations  of  "  electrons,'''  excessively  small  and  in  rapid  motion.  Radio-activity  is 
believed  to  be  due  to  the  escape  of  these  electrons.  All  matter  may  be  classified  under  two 
main  divisions;  a.  elements,  b.  compounds.  The  elements,  of  which  there  are  about  eighty 
different  kinds,  are  those  forms  of  matter  which  have  thus  far  resisted  all  efforts  10  separate 
them  into  simpler  substances.  The  compounds,  of  which  the  number  is  very  great,  are  those 
substances  in  which  the  molecules  are  made  up  of  atoms  of  two  or  more  different  elements. 
Most  elements  and  compounds  may  exist  under  three  different  conditions,  between  which, 
however,  no  sharp  distinction  can  be  made. 

1.  If  the  molecules  are  held  more  or  less  rigidly  in  position,  resisting  somewhat  any  effort 
to  displace  them,  the  matter  is  a  solid.     If  the  molecules  have  a  definite,  orderly  arrangement 
the  solid  is  crystalline,  but  if  no  such  order  exists  it  is  amorphous  in  its  structure. 

2.  If  the  molecules  are  capable  of  moving  freely  over  one  another  and  still  cling  together 
more  or  less  the  matter  is  a  liquid.       The  molecules  of  the  same  substance  in  the  liquid  condi- 
tion are  conceived  to  be  farther  apart  than  when   in  the  solid  condition,  the  molecules    them- 
selves probably  remaining  identical. 

3.  When  the  molecules   of   any    substance    are    forced  apart  sufficiently  by  any  agency 
cohesion  is  completely  overcome  and  they  tend    to   separate  indefinitely,  thus  giving  rise  to  a 
gas.     Liquids  and  gases  are  grouped  together  as  fluids.     Cold  and  pressure  are  favorable  for 
the  production  of  the  solid  condition,  while  heat  and  lack  of  pressure  give  rise  to  the  gaseous 
condition.     Can  gases  have  weight?     Gases  which  are  easily  changed  back  to  liquids  are  called 
vapors. 

Matter  can  neither  be  destroyed  nor  created  by  any  finite  power.  Either  it  has  always 
existed  or  else  it  was  created  from  non-matter  by  DEITY.  Matter  may  be  made  to  undergo  a 
great  many  transformations,  but  without  any  actual  loss.  Find  illustrations.  In  a  closed 
vessel  a  given  amount  of  matter  will  always  weigh  the  same,  regardless  of  the  changes  that  it 
may  undergo.  Changes  in  which  the  nature  of  the  molecule  itself  is  not  affected  are  spoken 
of  as  physical  changes.  Those  in  which  the  composition  of  the  molecule  is  altered  are  chemical. 


_ 

to  do  work,  or  to  overcome  resistance.  It  can  not  be  conceived  of  independently  of  matter 
but  adds  nothing  to  its  weight.  It  does  not  occupy  space  and  hence  is  not  matter.  Kvery 
conceivable  activity  in  the  universe  takes  place  because  the  matter  involved  possesses  energy 
in  some  form.  Without  it  all  matter  would  be  absolutely  cold,  dark  and  lifeless.  Energy 
cannot  be  destroyed  by  any  finite  power  and  neither  can  it  be  created.  Either  it  has  always 
existed  or  else  it  was  created  by  DKITV.  It  can  easily  be  made  to  undergo  many  transforma- 
tions without  any  actual  loss.  The  following  varieties  of  energy  are  recognized: 

1.  KINETIC  ENERGY.      This  is  possessed  by  all  masses  of  matter  which  are  in  motion. 
We  may  recognize  mass  kinetic,  molecular  kinetic  and  atomic  kinetic  energy.       This   energy 
must  have  been  communicated  to  the  moving  particles  from  some  outside  source. 

2.  POTENTIAL  ENERGY.       This  results  from  the  relative  position  of  bodies  that  have  a 
mutual  attraction  for  one    another,    as   gravitation,  cohesion  or  chemical  affinity.     If  separate 
and  free  to  move  they  will  acquire  motion  and  their   potential  energy  will  be  gradually  trans- 
formed into  kinetic.     Analyze  the  transformations  in  the  case  of  a  ball  thrown  vertically  into 
the  air;  in  the  case  of  a   swinging  pendulum.      Find    other  illustrations.      We  may  recognize 
mass  potential,  molecular  potential  and  atomic,  or  chemical  potential.       In  the  case  of  a  bent 
bow  or  a  compressed  spring,  the  molecules   are   forced    from    their    natural  positions  and  will 
return  when  permitted.     The  atoms  of  carbon  and  oxygen,   under  favorable  conditions,  'will 
rush  together  and  form  molecules  of  carbon-dioxide  gas. 

3.  HEAT.     This  is  a  form  of  energy  that    we    know  only  as  a  wave  motion,  transmitted 
through  the  mysterious  medium  known  as   the   ether,    which   fills   all  space  and  penetrates  all 
other  matter.     The  molecules  of  ether  may  communicate  their  movements  directly  to  those  of 
other  substances,  or  they  may  be  made  to  vibrate  by  other  means,  as  a  blow.       The  faster  the 
molecules  of  the  body  vibrate  the  higher  is  the  temperature. 

4.  LIGHT.       This  is  also  a  wave  motion  in  the  ether  but  a  different  type  of  energy  from 
heat.     They  may  differ  possibly  only  in  their  wave  lengths.       Some  bodies  allow  light  waves 
to  pass  through  them  and  are  transparent.     In  opaque  bodies  the  motion  of  the  ether  particles 
is  communicated  to  their  molecules  and  the    light   energy    is  thus  transformed  into  heat.     In 
green  plants  the  light  energy  forces  apart  the  atoms  of  carbon  and  oxygen  in  the  molecules  of 
carbon-dioxide  gas.     Give  the  transformations. 

5.  SOUND.     This  is  a  form  of   energy    which   manifests    itself  as  a  wave  motion  in  the 
molecules  of  air.     Trace  the  transformations  in  some  musical  instrument.   In  thinking  of  heat, 
light  and  sound  we  naturally  think  of  their  physiological  effects,  the  impressions  made  upon 
our  sense  organs  and  our  minds,  instead  of  the  physical  effects  noted.      Besides  these  ether 
and  air  waves  which  we  are  able  to  perceive,  a  far  greater  number  exist,  known  to  us  only 
by  experiment. 

6.  ELECTRICAL  ENERGY.     In  this  we  have  a  type  of  energy  that  has  thus  far  defied  all 
attempts  to  discover  its  real  nature.     That  it  manifests  itself  as  a  form  of  motion  seems  very 
probable,  resident  possibly  in  the  "electrons'"  of  which  the  atoms  thems.lves  are  now  conceived 
to  be  composed.     Much  of  the  industrial  development  of  the  present  day  is  based  upon  the 
conversion  of  other  forms  of  energy  into  electrical  energy  by   means  of  the  dynamo.     Any 
material    agent   possessing  energy,   or  having  the  property   of  attraction  or  repul.-ion,   may 
impart  motion  to  other  bodies  and  may  be  called  a  force.     Gravitation,  cohesion,    chemical 
affinity  and  magnetism  are  forces  resulting  from  the  properties  of  matter  in  which  they  reside. 
Wind,  running  water  and  moving  ice  are  forces  in  consequence  of  their  mass  kinetic  energy. 

C. — Nature's  Forces. 

i.  WIND.  The  sun's  heat  is  communicated  to  the  earth  giving  it  molecular  kinetic 
energy,  and  this  warms  the  adjacent  air,  pushing  its  molecules  farther  apart  and 
making  it  lighter.  This  mass  of  air  now  rises,  being  pushed  up  by  the  surrounding 
heavier  air,  which  descends  to  take  its  place.  Why  ?  The  mass  potential  energy  of  the  colder 
air  is  converted  into  mass  kinetic,  which  is  simply  transferred  to  the  warmer,  lighter  air 
causing  it  to  ascend.  As  it  rises  it  gradually  acquires  mass  potential  energy  with  reference 
to  the  surface  of  the  earth.  This  air  in  motion,  particularly  the  horizontal  currents,  with 
its  heat  and  kinetic  energy  constitutes  the  wind.  Explain  a  lake,  or  sea  breeze,  by  means 
of  a  diagram.  At  night  the  water  is  warmer  than  the  land  and  gives  rise  to  a  land  breeze. 

3 


Air  movements  upon  a  larger  scale  are  produced  by  the  excessive  warming  in  the  tropics, 
the  expansion  of  lower  layers  of  the  atmosphere,  the  lifting  of  the  upper  layers  and  their 
flow  polewards,  while  the  colder  and  heavier  air  to  the  north  and  south  moves  towards  the 
equator.  Can  you  trace  the  transformation  ? 

Seeing  how  the  wind  acquires  its  energy  much  interest  attaches  to  the  question  of  its 
expenditure.  Distribution  of  heat  and  moisture  over  the  globe,  destroying  rocks  and  artificial 
structures,  the  carrying  and  deposition  of  sand  and  dust,  the  production  of  water  currents  and 
waves  with  all  their  effects  about  the  shore,  the  transportation  of  pollen  and  seeds  and  the 
assistance  rendered  in  the  distribution  of  plants  and  animals  over  the  earth.  Man  may  util- 
ize the  energy  of  the  wind  by  means  of  windmills  and  in  the  case  of  sailing  boats,  balloons. 

2.  RUNNING  WATKR.     The   heat  of  the  sun  is  communicated  to  bodies  of  water,  driving 
the  molecules  apart    and  causing   it  to  become    vapor.     This  vapor,    mixed  with  air,  is  ligliter 
than  the  air  alone  and    rises,  for  the   same  reason  that  the  warmed  air  does  and  gives  rise    to 
winds.     In  thus  rising  it  has  mass  kinetic  energy    and  is  acquiring    mass  potential  with  refer- 
ence to  sea  level.     In  the  cold  upper  regions  it  loses  heat  and  condenses,  forming  clouds,  Which 
ma)'  be  shifted  over  the  land  by  the  winds.     The    minute  drops  of  the  clouds  unite  and   start 
to  fall.     Why?     What    transformation    of   energy  now  occurs?     When  the  drops   strike    the 
ground  they  instantly  lose  their  kinetic  energy,  thus  doing  work  upon  the  earth  or  receiving 
a    supply    of  heat.       Being  still  above  sea  level  they    possess  a  certain    amount  of  the   mass 
potential  energy  which  they  had  in  the   clouds.     When    collected  into   a  lakelet  or   stream  of 
water  this  potential  energy  may  be  converted  into  kinetic  energy,  in    which  fonn  it  is  able  to 
accomplish  work. 

The  direct  impact  of  the  raindrops  disintegrates  and  removes  soil  and  recks,  lowering  the 
general  level  of  the  land  (ra'n  erosion).  In  streams  the  water  forms  for  itself  a  channel  which 
it  deepens  and  widens.  The  material  is  transported  towards  the  lake  or  sea,  being  tempo- 
rarily deposited  upon  the  way  as  flood  plains,  bars,  cones,  deltas,  etc.,  and  being  finally  spread 
in  sheets  over  the  bed  of  the  body  of  water  into  which  it  empties.  Man  may  utilize  this  ener- 
gy in  transporting  logs,  rafts  and  boats,  in  turning  fishing-wheels  in  the  west,  and  various 
forms  of  water-wheels.  Trace  the  transformation  of  the  energy  in  the  case  of  the  great 
dynamos  at  Niagara,  each  dynamo  being  driven  by  a  great  water-wheel. 

3.  MOVING  ICE.     A  glacier  or  great  continental  ice-sheet  possesses  mass   potential  and 
mass  kinetic   energy    which  has  been    acquired  as  in  the  preceding  case,  the  only  difference 
being  that  the  vapor  is  congealed  into  snow.     This  snow    accumulates  in  favorable  places  and 
by  pressure  and    melting  is  compacted    into  ice.     Owing  to  the  attraction  of  gravitation  this 
ice  slowly  flows  to  a  lower  level.     Trace  this  kinetic  mass  energy  to  its  source. 

Glaciers  expend  their  energy  in  making  rock-basins,  disrupting  reck  masses,  in  grinding 
much  of  it  into  powder,  in  removing  former  soils,  in  transportation  of  rock  debris,  in  forming 
sheets  of  boulder  clay,  or  "till,"  and  in  the  making  of  moraines.  One  or  more  of  these  effects 
may  be  seen  nearly  everywhere  north  of  the  Ohio  and  Missouri  rivers.  The  melting  of  exten- 
sive ice-sheets  brought  out  from  the  ice  much  of  the  finer  material  and  formed  valley-trains, 
sand  plains  and  out-wash  aprons  of  sand  and  gravel.  Man  has  not  attempted  to  utilize  the 
kinetic  energy  of  glaciers. 

4.  PLANT  KNKRGY.     The  green   coloring  matter  of  plants  (chlorophyll),  using  the  Hglit 
of   the  sun  is  able  to  separate   the    atoms  in  the   molecules  of  carbon- dioxide   gas,  using    the 
carbon  to  make    starch  by  uniting  it  with  a  certain    amount  of  water   and    throwing  away  the 
oxygen.     Light  is  thus  transformed  into  atomic  kinetic  and  this  into  atomic  potential  energy, 
which  may  be  thought  of  as  residing  in  the  carbon.     The  carbon-dioxide  gas  ccines   from  the 
air  and  by  this  process  the  green  plants  get  the  carbon  needed  for  their  tissues  and  the  energy 
which    they   must    have  for  warmth  and  movement.     This  is  to  be  thought  of  as  a  process  of 
feeding.     The  carbon  is  loosely  united  with  hydrogen  f?nd  oxygen  to  make  various  plant  prod- 
ucts, but  retains  a  certain  amount  of  its  atomic  potential  energy  represented  by  its  separation 
from  oxygen    alone.     These   plant   materials   may  be  stored  in  the  root,  stem,  leaf,  fruit  and 
seed. 

When  these  plants  desire  to  liberate  and  utilize  some  of  this  stored  energy  the  gas  oxygen 
is  taken  into  their  tissues  from  the  atmosphere  (external  respiration^).  Certain  molecules  con- 
taining carbon  are  broken  down  and  this  carbon  unites  with  the  oxygen  forming  carbon- 


dioxide  gas  again  (internal  respiration^.  The  potential  atomic  energy  is  first  converted  into 
kinetic  atomic,  as  the  atoms  rush  together,  and  this  energy  in  turn  is  transformed  into  heat, 
or  mass  kinetic  for  the  use  of  the  plant.  Plantsylrtf'  in  order  to  get  materials  for  their  tissues 
and  also  to  get  energy.  They  breathe  in  order  to  liberate  energy  which  they  already  possess. 
Man  may  make  use  of  the  energy  contained  in  plant  tissue,  such  as  wood,  leaves,  straw,  moss, 
vegetable  oils,  resins,  etc.  When  brought  10  a  suitable  temperature  the  carbon  bearing  mole- 
cules disintegrate,  charring  takes  place,  and  the  carbon  unites  with  the  oxygen  of  the  atmosphere 
liberating  heat.  This  heat  is  transformed  sunlight.  Many  substances  derived  from  plants,  as 
alcohol,  peat,  coal,  petroleum,  natural  gas,  etc.,  still  retain  much  of  the  plant's  original  poten- 
tial energy,  which  may  be  set  free  and  liberated  as  heat.  Consider  the  transformations  of 
energy  that  have  taken  place  in  our  stoves,  paraffin  candles,  kerosene  lamps,  artificial  gas, 
machinery  operated  by  steam  engines.  Plants  without  chorophyll  must  get  their  energy  just 
as  do  animals  to  be  now  described. 

5.  ANIMAL  ENERGY.     By  a  process  of  feeding,  either  directly  or  indirectly,  animals  take 
into  their  bodies  those  substances  which  have  b^en  manufactured  by  plants;  chiefly   starches, 
sugars,  oils  and  gums.     These  contain  carbon  with  its   supply    of    potential   atomic   energy, 
representing  so  much  transformed  sunlight.     Plants  without  chlorophyll    must    secure   their 
energy  in  the  same  way.      Animals  feed  in  order  to  get  materials  for  their  tissues   and   to  get 
their  necessary  supply  of  energy.      Plant  products  are  worked  over  into  animal  substances,   of 
which  carbon  is  the  chief  ingredient  (assimilation). 

All  animals  must  have  energy  available  for  heat  and  movement,  and  in  exceptional  cases 
for  sound,  light  and  electricity.  Certain  molecules  are  broken  down  enabling  the  carbon  to 
unite  with  oxygen,  brought  in  by  the  process  of  iesp iratiou ,  thus  setting  free  the  energy  that 
was  potential.  In  the  case  of  the  oils,  hydrogen  also  is  /available  for  similar  union  with 
oxygen,  forming  wafer  and  liberating  energy.  Animals  respire  in  order  to  liberate  energy. 
What  animal  energies  may  man  directly  utilize  ?  Can  you  trace  the  transformations  of 
energy  from  the  light  of  a  tallow  candle  back  to  the  sun  ? 

The  "self-sustaining  aquarium,"  a  valuable  adjunct  of  every  schoolroom  and  home,  can 
now  be  readily  understood.  It  contains  green  plants  and  animal  life  so  adjusted  that  the 
water  does  not  need  to  be  changed.  Small  quantities  of  food  are  periodically  given  the 
animals,  thus  supplying  them  with  matter  and  energy.  The  oxygen  dissolved  in  the  water 
unites  with  the  carbon  of  the  animal  substance,  forming  carbon  dioxide  gas  and  setting  free 
the  energy.  The  carbon-dioxide  gas  is  supplied  the  water  and  taken  up  by  the  plants.  Us- 
ing the  light  of  the  sun,  this  gas  is  separated  into  carbon  and  oxygen.  The  carbon  is 
retained  by  the  plant  for  its  own  use  while  the  oxygen  is  thrown  into  the  water  again  for  the 
u«e  of  the  animal  life.  Note  that  you  supply  the  animal  life  with  matter  and  energy,  the 
carbon  being  passed  over  to  the  plant  which  is  thus  enabled  to  get  a  much  needed  material 
for  its  tissues  and  at  the  same  time  secure  energy  from  the  sun. 

6.  ENERGY  NOT  FROM  THE  SUN.     In  all  the  above  cases  the  sun  has  been  shown  to    be 
the  source  of  energy.     Where   could   it    have    gotten    its   tremendous   supply  ?     Can    it   last 
forever?     In  addition  to  the  above  we  have  other  great  manifestations  of   energy,    which    can 
not  be  traced  directly  to  our  present  sun.     The  earth  is  moving  forward  in  its  orbit  about  the 
sun  at  the  rate  of  about  18  miles  a  second,  bringing  us  the  change  of  seasons.     It  is  rotating 
upon  its  axis  at  a  maximum  rate  of  over  17  miles  a  minute,  causing  the  changes  of   day   and 
night,  influencing  the  oceanic  and  atmospheric  currents,    and    causing    the    tidal    waves.     In 
addition  to  this  mass  kinetic   energy,    the  outer   crust    possesses   a   great   quantity    of   mass 
potential  energy  with  reference  to  the  interior,  giving  rise  to  subsidence    in    places   and    up- 
heavals in  others,  often  with  accompanying  earthquakes.    The  earth  possesses   a    tremendous 
store  of  internal  heat,  causing  volcanoes,  geysers  and  hot    springs.      Minerals    occur   in    the 
earth,  such  as  iron,  sulphur,    etc.,   which    have   an    attraction   for   oxygen    and    hence    they 
possess  atomic  potential  energy.      According  to  the  Nebular  Theory  of  the  origin  of  our  earth 
all  these  forms  of  energy  were  derived  from  what  constituted   the  sun    at    the    time  that    the 
earth  was  separated  from  it.     According  to  the  other  two  theories  of  earth  origin  this  energy 
came  from  outside  our  present  solar  system. 

5 


REFERENCE  UST. 

1.  FIRST  COURSE  IN  PHYSICS — Millikan  and  Gale.     Ginn  &  Co.,  1906. 

2.  PHYSICS — Mann  and  Twiss.     Scott,  Foresmaii   &  Co.,  1906. 

3.  FIRST  SCIENCE  BOOK — Higgins.     Ginn  &  £o.,  1905. 

4.  INTRODUCTION  TO  PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY — Gilbert  &  Brigham.      Appleton  &  Co., 

1902. 

5.  ELEMENTARY  PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY — Davis.     Ginn  &  Co.,  1902. 

6.  TEXT-BOOK  OF  GEOLOGY — Brigham.     Appleton  &  Co.,  1905. 

7.  ELEMENTS  OF  GEOLOGY — Norton.     Ginn  &  Co.,  1905. 

8.  COLLEGE  BOTANY — Atkinson.     Holt  &  Co.,  1905. 

9.  INTRODUCTION  TO  BOTANY — Stevens.     Heath  &  Co.,  1902. 

10.  STUDIES  IN  PHYSIOLOGY,  ANATOMY    AND    HYGIENE — Peabocly.        The  Maomillan 

Co.     1902. 

11.  MANUAL  OF  PHYSIOLOGY — Stewart.     Saunders  &  Co.,  1905. 

6 


CHAPTER  il.-PROGRESSiVE  CHANGE  IN  NATURE. 


"  Nature  knows  no  pause  in  progress  and  attaches  her  curse  to  all  inaction." — Goethe. 


A. — Origin  of  the  Earth.  Concerning  the  origin  of  our  planet  two  views  may  be  held. 
It  may  have  always  existed 'and  presumably  will  never  end,  or  it  may  have  been  created.  If 
created  it  must  have  been  by  DEITY  and  two  methods  might  have  been  employed.  It  might 
have  been  flashed  into  existence  by  divine  command,  illustrating  the  special  creation  method; 
or  it  may  have  been  produced  by  slow  progressive  change.  Scientific  studies  of  the  solar  system 
and  other  portions  of  the  universe  have  led  to  the  belief  that  the  earth  was  created  by  the 
method  of  slow  progressive  change  and  that  it  must  necessarily  come  to  an  end.  As  to  the 
manner  of  this  creation  three  different  theories  have  been  held. 

1.  NEBULAR  THEORY.     Based   upon   the   great   nebular   masses   known  to  exist  in  the 
heavens    this  theory  assumes  that  the  entire  solar  system  (sun,  planets  and  satellites)  existed 
in  the  form  of  a  white   hot  gaseous  mass.     Gravitation  gave  the  mass  a  spheroidal  form  and 
as  it  radiated  its  heat  into  space  it  contracted  and  a  slow  rotary  movement   was  inaugurated. 
Further  contraction  increased  the  rotary  movement  and  the  gaseous  matter  was  drawn  some- 
what from  the  poles  and  heaped  up  about   the  equator,  where  the  motion  was  the  greatest. 
Ovving  to  the  tendency  of  a  rapidly  rotating  mass  to  move   from  the  center  (centrifugal force} 
there  came  a  time  when  this  tendency  just  balanced  the  gravitation  in  a  ring  of  gaseous  mat- 
ter surrounding  the  equator.     This  ring  then  had  its  weight  neutralized  and  became  detached 
from  the  central  mass  as  the  latter  continued  to  contract  from  its  loss  of  heat.     This  ring  of 
gaseous,  or  semi  liquid  matter,  retained  its  mass  kinetic  energy  but  gave  out  its  heat,  cooling 
and  contracting  and  finally   breaking  up  into  fragments  all  revolving  in  the  same  orbit  about 
the  great  central  mass.     Because  of  mutual  attractions  and  unequal  velocities  the  larger  masses 
captured  the  smaller  and  eventually  all  were  united  into  a  single  rotating  and  revolving   spher- 
oid of  solid  matter,  the  planet  Neptune.     As  the  central  mass   contracted    more  and  more  its 
velocity  of  rotation  continually  increased  and  successively  other  rings  were  detached,  each  be- 
coming a  planet  with  diminished  orbit,  the  sun  representing  what  is  still  left  of  the  central 
mass.     According  to  this  theory  some  of  the  planets  themselves  gave  off  one  or  more  rings 
which  became  their  satellites,  our  earth  giving  off  but  one.     The  source  of  the  earth's  kinetic 
and  potential  energy  and  internal  heat  is  now  apparent. 

Through  ages  too  long  to  be  numbered  in  years  the  earth  may  be  supposed  to  have  passed 
through  the  gaseous,  liquid  and  partially  solid  condition.  The  original  crust  formed  in 
patches  and  may  have  been  frequently  reraelted,  until  it  finally  became  continuous.  Eventu- 
ally it  became  cool  enough  to  allow  the  condensed  water  vapor  to  rest  in  the  irregular  depres- 
sions and  the  seas  were  started.  How  much  of  the  interior  of  the  earth  still  remains  molten 
we  have  no  means  of  knowing,  but  it  is  supposed  that  in  spite  of  the  heat,  the  tremendous 
pressure  of  the  outer  layers  forces  the  molecules  closely  enough  together  to  make  a  solid  of 
the  great  central  core. 

2.  MKTEORITIC  THEORY.     According   to  this  theory  the  earth  was   formed  from   the 
accumulation  of  those  wandering  rock  fragments  in  space  known  as  meteorites.     A  large  one 
would  draw  to  itself  the  smaller  ones  coming  within  the  sphere  of  its  attraction  and  these  in 
turn  others,  until  a  great  central  mass  would  be  accumulated.     The  mass  kinetic  energy  of 
the  flying  meteorites  would  be  transformed  into  heat  upon  striking,  and  so  the  entire  mass 
would  become  heated  and  possibly  even  liquified.     The  gases  and   vapors  would   be  driven 
from  the  various  meteorites  and  from   the  atmosphere  and   seas.     From  this  highly  heated 
spheroidal  body  the  history  of  the  earth  would  be  very  similar  to  that  outlined  in  the  preced- 
ing theory.     The  rotation  of  the  earth  upon  its  axis  may  be  explained  by  assuming  that  the 
heaviest  blows  were  struck  upon  the  same  side  of  the  center.     Its  movement   about  the  sun 
may  have  arisen  from  its  capture  by  gravitation  by  that  great   body,  in  the  same   manner  that 
the  earth  secured  its  moon. 

7 


!r-;--?3-  •PivANETEslMAL  TH£OR\'.  This  theory  of  earth  origin  gives  promise  of  displacing 
the  two  preceding,  but  is  itself  still  in  its  formative  stage.  It  assumes  that  our  present  solar 
system  was  derived  from  an  original  gaseous  mass  (a  sun  and  star}  which  was  moving  through 
space  and  revolving  upon  an  axis.  By  the  dose  approach  of  another  great  body  this  gaseous 
mass  was  partially  disrupted  by  its  own  elastic  force  and  the  gravitation  of  the  second  body. 
The  arms  of  matter  shot  out,  containing  variable  masses  (knots)  and  much  finely  divided  mat- 
ter (plandesimals),  were  twisted  into  a  spiral  similar  to  the  spiral  nebulae  now  seen  in  the 
heavens.  The  disrupted  material  from  the  central  sun,  constituting  not  more  than  one  to  two 
percent  of  its  original  mass,  was  given  a  motion  about  the  sun  in  elliptical  orbits.  It  soon 
passed  into  the  liquid  or  solid  state  and  some  of  it  remained  hmiinous,either  because  of  heat  or 
from  some  other  possible  cause.  The  minute  plauetesimals  would  slowly  collect  about  the 
knots  as  nucleii,  more  from  their  overtaking  one  another  than  from  gravitation.  The  energy 
of  the  collisions  would  be  so  slight  and  their  accumulation  so  slow  that  no  significant  amount 
of  heat  would  be  added  to  the  newly  forming  planet.  In  some  such  way  is  the  earth  supposed 
to  have  originated.  As  the  spheroidal  mass  slowly' grew  in  size  the  condensation  of  its  inter- 
nal portions  by  the  tremendous  weight  of  the  outer  layers  would  liberate  heat  and  the  interior 
of  the  earth  became  warmer  and  warmer.  This  heat  and  pressure  forced  to  the  outside  the 
gases  of  which  the  atmosphere  is  composed  as  well  as  that  which  makes  up  the  seas.  The 
moon  is  supposed  to  have  been  formed  from  a  neighboring  knot  of  matter,  but  to  have  grown 
less  rapidly  than  our  earth  and  to  be  still  too  small  to  hold  atmospheric  gases  by  its  gravita- 
tion. Hence  it  is  practically  without  water  and  an  atmosphere. 

B.  History  of  the  Earth.  The  geological  history  of  the  earth  may  be  assumed  to  have 
begun  with  the  formation  of  a  solid  crust,  providing  the  molten  condition  is  accepted.  Pre- 
vious to  this  time  it  was  simply  a  small  star  instead  of  a  planet.  According  to  the  planetesi- 
mal  hypothesis  the  earth  may  be  assumed  to  have  begun  its  geological  history  with  the  acquisi- 
tion of  an  atmosphere.  This  has  been  computed  to  be  when  it  had  attained  a  diameter  of 
about  4200  miles.  The  earth,  from  either  of  these  stages,  has  attained  its  present  features 
and  forms  of  life  by  a  process  of  slow,  progressive  change.  The  following  stages  may  be 
recoguixed. 

1.  Azoic  ERA.     This  is  the  life/ess  stage  of  the  earth's  history,  made  so  either  because  of 
the  excessive  heat  upon  one  hand  or  of  the  extreme  cold  and   scanty    atmosphere.     According 
to  the  nebular  theory  the  crust  must  cool  from  over  2500°  F  to  about  500",  when  the  water  of 
the  oceans   might  begin  to  condense  under  the    great  atmospheric   pressure.     According  to 
the  rival  theory  the  earth  continued  to  grow  in  size  from  the  accession  of  planetesimals  and  to 
acquire  heat  from  the  compression  of  the  interior.     The  rocks  are  mainly   crystalline  in  struc- 
ture and  have  been  folded  and  crumpled  by  pressure. 

2.  Eozoic  ERA.     The   name  means   the   dawn  of  lije,  since  we  have   indirect   evidence 
that  low  forms  of  both  plant  and  animal  life  had  been    introduced    upon  the  earth.     This  evi- 
dence is  supplied  by  beds  of  limestone,  iron  ores,  and   carboniferous   shales   produced    to-day 
mainly    through  the   activity  of  organisms.      Direct  evidence   of  life  has  been    found  in  a  few 
places,   consisting  of  the  remains  (fossils}  of  simple  representatives  of  groups  of  backboneless 
animals  (invertebrates),  which  lived  in  the  sea.     We  have  no  positive  clue  as  to  the  source  of 
this  life.   It  may  have  been  transferred  horn,  some  other  planet  or  it  may  have  been  created  hep/. 
Some  have  held  that  the  original  life  was  created  " spontaneously" ;  others  that  it  was  created 
by  DEITY.     If  created  by  the   latter,  two    methods  may  be  conceived;  viz.,  direct  creation,  by 
divine  command,  of  repre;-entatives  of  the  various  groups  of  plants  and  animals;  or  such  crea- 
tion of  only  the  simplest  forms  and  their  slow  modification  into  higher  groups,  as  the  monoto- 
nous ages  crept  by. 

3.  PALAEOZOIC  ERA.     ''Ancient  life."     During   this   era  conditions   were   much   more 
favorable  for  both  marine  and  land  life  and  for  its  preservation  in  the  sediments   that  were  to 
be  transformed  into  the  firm  outer  layers  of  the  earth's  crust.    Life  made  a  great  advance  from 
the  sluggish,  segmented  creatures  that  crept  over  the  slime  of  the  sea-bottom  to  the  vertebrated 

nimals  that  were  able  to  leave  the  water  and  enjoy  the  forested  and  fern-eovered  banks.    Four 
ain  divisions(periods)of  the  era  may  be  recognized,  each  characterized  by  successively  higher 
orms  of  life.     The  life  forms  of  each    period  are    related  to  those  of  the  preceding,  as  well  as 
he  following   period,  but  are   sufficiently   different  so  that   the  expert  can  distinguish   them 

8 


readily.  This  may  be  explained  by  assuming  that  the  Creator  annihilated  all  life  at  the  close 
of  each  period  and  then  created  new  forms,  closely  resembling  the  old,  by  the  method  of 
direct,  or  spzcial  creation.  It  would  be  exactly  as  reasonable  to  suppose  that  he  annihilated 
the  earth  itself  at  the  same  time  creating  it  anew,  because  we  find  it  somewhat  different  dur- 
ing each  period.  Just  as  the  earth  was  slowly  changed  by  the  agencies  described  in  chapter 
I,  so  scientists  believe  that  the  forms  of  plants  and  animals  of  one  period  were  gradually 
modified  into  those  of  the  next  period,  as  rapidly  as  newer  and  better  environments  were  pre- 
pared to  receive  them. 

a.  Cambrian  period.     Animal  life  during  this  period  was  abundant  and  varied,  but  con- 
fined to  the  invertebrates.     The  dominant  typs  was  the  crustacean,  to-day  represented  by  the 
lobsters,  crayfish  atid  crabs.     Marine  plant  lite  must  have  existed,  but  is  known  only  by  a  few 
obscure  imprints  of  sea  weed.     The  continents  and  islands  were  of  limited  size  and  no  traces 
of  land  life  have  yet  been  found. 

b.  Silurian  period.     (Ordovician  and   Silurian.)     Upheaval  of  portions  of  the  Cambrian 
sea  bottom  increased  the  land   areas   somewhat,  but  the  sea  was   still  of  wide   extent.     The 
group  of  mollusks,  represented   to-day   by  the   clam,  oyster,  snails   and   nautilus,  became  the 
dominant  type.     Fragments  of  their   shells,  mingled    with  the  hard   parts  of  corals,  crinoids, 
etc.,  gave  rise  to  great    beds  of  limestone.     Remains  of  marine   plants  are  surprisingly  scarce 
and  related  to  the   algae  of  to-day.     Land  insects  have  been  found   and  traces  of  ferns.     The 
concentration  of  inland  seas  by  evaporation  gave  rise  to  beds  of  salt  over  certain  areas. 

c.  Devonian  period.     During  the  Silurian  and  at  its  close  much  more  land  was  added  to 
the  continents.     This  land  was  forested  with  trees  of  a  primitive  type,  with  an   undergrowth 
of  ferns  and  rushes.     Insect  and  land  mollusks  are   known    to    have    lived.     In    the    water 
especially  marine,  the  group  of  plants  known  as  rhizocarps  flourished   in    countless    numbers. 
Their  spores  accumulated  in  the  mud  rocks  (shales)  and  gave  rise  to  much  oil  and  gas.     The 
most  remarkable  advance  was  in  the  animal  life  of  the  ocean  and  bodies  of  fresh  water.     The 
lowest  class  of  backboned  animals — the  fishes — had  come  into  great  prominence  from  their 
numbers  and  size.     These  are  vertebrates  adapted  to  an  aquatic  mode  of  life  by  gills  and  fins. 
They  are  usually  covered  with  scales  or  plates,  have   a  single  auricle   and  ventricle  and  are 
cold  blooded. 

d.  Carboniferous  period.     (Carboniferous  and  Permian).     A  further  great  expansion  of 
the  laud  occurred,  much  of  it  standing  near  sea  level;  a  warm,    moist  climate    extended  well 
toward  the  poles  and  the  air  was  highly  charged  with  carbon-dioxide  gas.     In  many    regions 
conditions  were  most  favorable  for  the  growth    of    moisture    loving    plants.     The    lycopods, 
represented  today  by  the  ground-pine,  shot  up  into  magnificant  forest    trees,    mingled    with 
which  were  tree  ferns  and  gigantic  rushes.     Much  vegetable    matter    accumulated    in    the 
swamps  where,  out  of  contact  with  oxygen,  under  the  pressure  of  later  deposits,  with    some 
internal  heat  of  the  earth,  it  was  finally  converted  into  coal.     Dr.  Winchell  poetically  referred 
to  this  substance  as  "Solidified  sunlight."    The  fishes,  modified  from  the  Devonian  forms,  were 
rulers  of  the  sea,  preying  upon  one  another  and  upon  the  invertebrates.     In  the   fresh  waters 
of  the  land  a  higher  type  of  vertebrate  had  appeared; — the  amphibian,    represented  to-day  by 
the  mad-puppies,  salamanders,  frogs  and  toads.     They  were  numerous  and    grew    to    much 
larger  size  than  at  present.     Can  you  find  any  reason  why?     This   class    of    vertebrates    has 
typically  a  smooth  skin  and  no  claws  and  breathes,  in  the  adult  stage  by  lungs.     Fore    and 
hind  limbs  are  present.     They  are  cold  blooded  and  have  two  auricles  and  one  ventricle. 

4.  MESOZOIC  ERA.  During  this  "middle  life"  of  the  earth's  history  there  occurred  a 
marked  advance  in  the  continents  and  their  surface  features,  as  well  as  in  the  plant  and 
animal  life.  It  is  usually  divided  into  three  periods  which  may  not  be  here  recognized.  The 
dominant  type  of  plants  was  the  cycad,  a  tree  which  combined  characteristics  of  the  conifers, 
the  palms  and  the  ferns,  only  a  few  representatives  of  which  are  still  living  in  the  tropics. 
The  next  higher  group  of  vertebrates; — the  reptile,  had  appeared  and  in  enormous  numbers 
and  almost  unbelievable  size  dominated  the  seas,  land,  trees  and  air.  The  reptile  is  a  tailed, 
cold  blooded  vertebrate,  with  fore  and  hind  limbs,  generally  present,  covered  with  plates  or 
scales  and  provided  with  claws.  It  breathes  by  lungs  and  has  two  incompletely  separated 
ventricles  (lizards,  crocodiles,  turtles,  snakes,  etc.).  During  this  era  conditions  in  the  sea  were 


favorable  for  the  growth  of  certain  microscopic  organisms,  whose  shells  gave  rise  to  extensive 
beds  of  chalk. 

5.  CENOZOIC  ERA.     ''Recent  life.'"     Further  advances  in  the  continents  and  seas,  in  their 
plant  and  animal  life  brought  the  earth  still  nearer  to  that  of  to-day.     In  the  west  there  was 
great  volcanic  and  mountain  making  activity  during  the  early  half  of  the  era,    while    in    the 
latter  half  the  ice-sheets  formed  in  Canada  and  invaded  the  United    States.     Similar    events 
were  occurring  in  Europe  and  elsewhere  in  the  world.     The  modern  genera  of  trees  wrere    in- 
troduced early  and  some  of  those   now   growing  in  our  southern  states  extended  northward 
even  to  northern  Greenland.     It  was  the  age  of  higher  flowering  plants;    the    dicotyls,  includ- 
ing the  deciduous  trees.     The  two  highest  groups  of   vertebrates,     the    birds  and    mammals, 
reached  their  fullest  development  simultaneously.     Scientists  believe  that    they    were    each 
derived  independentl)'  from  certain  groups  of  Mesozoic  reptiles,  as  the  result  of   their  adjust- 
ment to  new  environments.     They  attained  great  size  and  numbers  under  the  favorable    con- 
ditions that  prevailed  before  the  glacial  period.   Man  slipped  in  quietly,  as  the  highest  type  of 
mammal,  and,  in  Europe  if  not  in  America,  saw  the  great  ice-sheets  slowly  invade  his  native 
forests. 

6.  PSYCHOZOIC  ERA.     This,  the  "age  of  mind''  may  well  be  s  -parated  from  the  preceding, 
although  no  line  of  demarcation  can  be  drawn  between  the  two.     Human    reason    has    grad- 
ually displaced    brute  force  and  man  is  gaining  the  ascendency  over  Nature  and  compelling 
her  to  do  his  bidding.     Dangerous  plants  and  animals  are  being    exterminated,    useful    ones 
have  been  preserved  through  domestication  and  their  usefulness  still  further  increased  through 
artificial  selection.     The  waste  places  of  the  earth  are  made   to    blossom    as    the    rose,     the 
energies  of  Nature  are  being  garnered  and  time  and  distance  annihilated. 


General 

Summary  of  Earth  Development. 

STAGES  IN  EARTH  HISTORY. 

DOMINANT  PLANT  TYPE. 

DOMINANT  ANIMAL  TYPE. 

6.     Psychozoic  Era 

»«      Domesticated  Plants 

Man 

5.     Cenozoic  Era 

1   Dicotyls 

5       Birds  and  Mammals 

4      Mesozoic  Era 

[  Cycads 

Reptiles 

>! 

f  Carboniferous 

Lycopods 

Amphibians 

1 
3.     Palaeozoic  j   Devonian 

•       Rhizocarps 

I              Fishes 

T?ra 

*j 

Silurian 

|       Algae 

Mollusks 

I  Cambrian 

E 
Algae 

1 
Crustaceans 

w 

2.     Eozoic  Era 

i   Problematic 

J    [  Lower  invertebrates 

i.     Azoic  Era 

No  life 

No  life 

C.  Present  Day  Changes.  Through  the  operation  of  the  forces  described  in  chapter  I 
constant  changes  in  the  earth,  plants  and  animals  are  in  progress  to-day.  The  rapidity  and 
amount  of  change  depends  upon  the  rate  of  activity  of  these  various  forces.  At  great  depths 
in  the  ocean,  the  conditions  of  which  may  be  readily  imagined,  changes  occur  with  inconceiv- 
able slowness,  while  upon  the  land,  elevated  more  or  less,  relatively  rapid  changes  are  con- 
stantly in  progress.  In  both  land  and  water  the  plants  and  animals  are  directly  and  strongly 
affected  by  their  immediate  surroundings  {environment}.  Some  of  the  more  important 
changes  will  be  briefly  outlined. 

i.  LAND.  Through  the  internal  energies  of  the  earth  changes  in  elevation  of  the 
surface  are  in  constant  progress,  the  crust  of  the  earth  being  subject  to  upheaval  and  sub- 
sidence. The  activity  of  the  wind,  water,  ice  and  plants  leads  to  a  constant  readjustment  of 
levels,  cutting  here  and  filling  there.  These  forces  are  all  engaged  in  continually  changing 
the  character  of  the  soil.  For  reasons  not  so  clearly  understood  slow,  progressive  changes  in 
climate  occur.  In  a  great  variety  of  ways  plants  and  animals  must  adjust  themselves  to  their 

10 


changing  environment,  in  case  they  do  not  migrate  or  perish.  Protective  coverings  must  be 
taken  on,  or  discarded,  changes  in  the  structure,  size  and  form  of  the  various  organs  must 
occur  in  order  to  adjust  them  to  their  new  conditions.  If  these  changed  conditions  are  favor^ 
able  an  increase  in  size  and  numbers  will  result,  but  if  unfavorable  the  size  will  be  reduced 
and  the  number  of  individuals  diminished.  A  barrier  \\\  nature  is  any  physical  feature  that 
tends  to  keep  the  forms  of  one  region  separate  from  those  of  another,  as  a  mountain  range, 
desert,  body  of  water,  etc.  When  such  a  barrier  is  broken  down  by  any  of  the  above  men- 
tioned agencies  forms  of  animals  and  plants  are  allowed  to  mingle,  the  biological  equilibrium 
is  disturbed  and  an  entire  readjustment  is  demanded.  Unwittingly  man  has  helped  plants 
and  animals  over  these  natural  barriers  to  his  sorrow.  Illustrations  are  furnished  by  the 
English  sparrow,  the  gypsy  moth,  the  San  Jose'  scale  and  the  Russian  thistle  in  America;  the 
mongoose  in  Jamaica  and  the  rabbits  in  Australia. 

2.  WATER.  In  the  ocean  and  other  large  bodies  of  water  changes  in  thx*  depth  may 
occur  through  oscillations  of  the  bottom  or  variations  in  the  level  of  the  surface.  Wind,  run- 
ing  water,  ice,  animals  and  plants  often  conspire  to  lessen  the  depth  of  lakes  and  seas. 
Climatic  changes  upon  land,  the  shifting  of  winds  and  currents  may  materially  change  the 
temperature  of  the  water  in  any  particular  region.  The  water  may  become  more  or  less 
charged  with  sediment,  salt  or  some  other  ingredient  of  sea  or  lake  water.  The  average 
amount  of  oxygen  or  of  carbon-dioxide  may  be  the  subject  of  change,  the  amount  of  light  may 
vary  and  the  character  of  the  sea  bottom  may  be  slowly  or  rapidly  changed.  In  all  cases  plants 
and  animals  become  adapted  to  certain  average  conditions  and  as  these  change  the  animals  and 
plants,  that  do  not  perish  or  migrate,  will  also  change  in  their  efforts  to  adjust  themselves  to 
their  new  environment.  It  seems  probable  that  the  fresh  water  plants  and  animals  were 
derived  from  marine  forms  that  were  isolated  in  separate  bodies  of  water,  the  character  of  which 
was  gradually  changed  by  streams.  Barriers  also  occur  in  the  water  consisting  of  depths  and 
shoals,  cold  or  warm  currents,  streams  of  fresh  or  muddy  water,  bodies  of  land,  etc.  The 
breaking  down  of  these  barriers  may  occur  through  the  operation  of  agencies  already  discussed, 
leading  to  the  same  results  as  upon  land.  The  opening  of  the  Panama  Canal  will  partially 
destroy  the  barrier  which  has  kept  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  forms  apart  and  allow  a  com- 
mingling of  forms  with  results  difficult  to  predict. 

D.  Natural  Selection.  Many  of  the  changes  referred  to  above  as  occuring  amongst 
plants  and  animals  take  place  through  the  operation  of  four  principles,  known  as  the  "principles 
of  natural  selection."  Other  principles  are  also  operative  but  these  are  so  fundamental  and 
important  that  they  should  be  understood  by  all.  Through  their  operation  the  plants  and 
animals  have  been  many  times  changed  during  the  long  earth  history,  those  that  survive  being 
the  merest  "handful  to  the  tribes  that  slumber  in  its  bosom." 

1.  PRINCIPLE  ONE.     No  two  individual  plants  or  animals    are    exactly    alike.     Where 
they  seem  to  be  alike  a  very  little  observation  will  show  that  they  are  different  in  every  respect. 
For  every  difference  that  man  may  detect  with  his  special  senses  we  may  be  certain  that  many 
others  exist  which  he  is  unable  to  recognize.     We  may  go  still  further  and  say   that    no    two 
parts  of  the  same  individual  are  exactly  alike  ;  no  two  leaves,  blades  of  grass,  flowers  or  seeds. 
Try  to  disprove  this  statement  by  finding  t\vo  things  that  really  are  alike. 

2.  PRINCIPLE  TWO.     There  is  a  constant  struggle  in  progress  amongst  plants  and    ani- 
mals.    This  arises  from    their    imperfect  adjustment    to  their  environment  and  from  the  fact 
that  more  individuals  are  produced  than  can  be  accommodated  upon    the    earth.     Plants    are 
struggling    for    room,     food,  moisture,  and  sunlight,  against  plant  and  animal  enemies,  often 
against  unfavorable  climate  and  soil  and  to  secure  cross-pollination    and  distribution    for    its 
seed.     Animals  are  struggling  for  food  and  water,    against  plant  and  animal  enemies,  to  pro- 
tect their  young  and  often  against  unfavorable  climatic  conditions.     Only    under   exceptional 
circumstances  do  they  struggle  for  room  and  air. 

i3.  PRINCIPLE  THREE.  In  general,  those  forms  which  are  best  fitted  for  the  particular 
environment  that  they  are  called  upon  to  occupy  are  the  ones  that  survive.  If  the  struggle  is 
sufficiently  severe  all  others  are  exterminated.  Those  characteristics  that  "best  fit"  any  or- 
ganism for  this  struggle  will  depend  upon  the  structure,  habits  and  environment  of  such 
organism.  For  the  plants  rapidity  of  germination  will  often  be  an  advantage  ;  a  type  of  root 
development  that  will  best  anchor  the  plant  and  enable  it  to  most  successfully  wrest  from  the 
soil  its  mineral  foods  and  moisture  ;  a  growth  above  ground  which  best  enables  the  plant 

11 


to  secure  the  most  favorable  amount  of  sunlight  and  at  the  same  time  successfully  resist 
unfavorable  climatic  conditions  and  enemies.  The  question  of  plant  survival  often  hinges 
upon  the  most  effective  methods  of  securing  cross-pollination  and  seed  distribution.  In 
regard  to  animals  success  in  the  struggle  for  existence  may  depend  upon  rapidity  of  develop- 
ment, acute  senses,  strength  of  limb  and  fieetness,  favorable  coloration,  ability  to  adjust  them- 
selves fully  to  climatic  conditions,  parental  care,  effective  weapons  of  offense  and  defense, 
mental  power,  etc.  The  result  of  the  operation  of  principles  one,  two  and  three  is  the 
"elimination  of  the  unfit"  and  the  "survival  of  the  fittest,"  so  far  as  the  plants  and  animals 
of  a  single  generation  are  concerned. 

4.  PRINCIPLE  FOUR.     There  is  a  tendency  to  transmit  by  heredity  to  the  next  generation 
those  characteristics  (with  others  as  well)  that  have  enabled  the  organism  to  attain  success  in 
this  life  and  death  struggle.     This  is  admitted  to    be  true    by    all,  providing  these  favorable 
characteristics  were  themselves   inherited.     In  case  these  characteristics  were  acquired  during 
the  life  of  the  individual,  biologists  are  not  agreed  in  regard  to  the  possibility   of   their  trans- 
mission.    Use  and  disuse  of  organs  by  individual  plants  and  animals  may  greatly  affect    their 
state    of  development.       If  continued  through    a   series  of  generations  it  seems  to  the  writer 
that    such    characteristics   will   have   a   tendency  to   become  fixed  and  transmissible.    L,uther 
Burbank  has  stated  that  all  characteristics  that  are  now  inhenled  must  have  been  at  some  time 
acquired.     Through  the  operation  of  the  entire  four  principles  wre  may  account   more    or    less 
satisfactorily  for  the  remarkable   adaptation  of  plants  and  animals  to  their   environment.     Il- 
lustration of  the  application  of  these  principles  will  be  taken  up  in  class. 

5.  ARTIFICIAL  SELECTION.      Making  use  of  the  above  described  principles  man   steps 
in  and  by  eliminating  the  struggle  and  doing  the  selecting  himself,  induces  Nature  to  produce 
modifications  that  she  would   not  otherwise  make.     The   principles  made  use  of  are,  first  the 
tendency  towards  variation,  which  may  even  be   increased   by  man,  and  the    transmi>sion    of 
inherited  characteristics.     The  wonderful  productions  of  Luther  Burbank,  such  as  the  i horn- 
less cactus,  have  been  produced  by  careful  selection,  intelligent  cross-pollination  and  the  most 
skillful  treatment  of  the  plants  and  their  descendants.     From  a  weed  growing  along  the  shores 
of  the  Baltic  (Brassica'}  there  has  been  produced  the  turnip,    kohl    rabi,    cabbage,     Brussels' 
sprouts,    cauliflower,    etc.,    depending   upon  the  storage  of  plant  substance  in  the  root,  stem, 
leaf  or  flower  stalks.     Beginning  back  in  prehistoric  time  the  domestication  of    animals    and 
their   selection  for  special  purposes  began  and  is  still  in  progress.     Thus  have  originated  our 
various  breeds  of  horses,  cattle,  sheep,  dogs,  cats,  fowls,  etc.     How  could  man  produce  a  blue 
rose,  a  gold-fish  or  a  white  robin? 

E.  Evidences  of  Development.  There  remains  to  be  presented  some  of  the  strongest 
evidences  that  the  groups  of  plants  and  animals  living  to-day  have  been  produced  from  the 
slow  modification  of  related  groups  that  lived  in  the  Ceuozoic  era,  rather  than  that  they  were 
produced  by  the  method  of  special  creation.  These  ancestral  groups  were  in  their  turn 
derived  from  still  more  primitive  ones  owing  to  the  slow,  progressive  change  in  the  environ- 
ment. This  method  is  what  scientists  understand  by  development,  or  evolution,  which  is  sim- 
ply the  gradual  unrolling,  or  unfolding  of  a  magnificaut  scheme  of  creation  which  compre- 
hends the  earth  itself  and  all  that  it  contains.  There  are  certain  evidences  that  are  best  ex- 
plained by  assuming  that  the  CREATOR  used  this  method  in  getting  the  present  groups  of 
plants  and  animals  upon  the  earth.  Taken  together  they  have  the  force  of  a  positive 
demonstration. 

i.  EVIDENCE  FROM  STRUCTURE.  Microscopically  plants  and  animals  show  a  striking 
similarity  in  structure,  consisting  of  single  cells,  or  aggregations  of  cells  and  products  produced 
thereby.  Within  the  various  groups  there  is  strong  similarity  in  the  general  plan  of  each 
organism  and  in  the  more  detailed  plan  of  the  various  parts.  A  good  illustration  is  furnished 
by  the  fore  limbs  of  the  great  group  of  vertebrates,  consisting  of  fishes,  amphibians,  reptiles, 
birds  and  mammals.  This  similarity  in  coarse  and  microscopic  structure  strongly  suggests 
blood  relationship,  the  derivation  of  one  group  directly  from  another.  It  is  like  finding  strong 
similarity  in  the  alphabet,  words  and  grammar  of  two  languages  which  is  accepted  as  positive 
evidence  of  direct  relationship.  These  facts  of  similarity  may  be  reconciled  with  the  special 
creation  theory  by  assuming  that  the  CREATOR  simply  desired  to  use  the  same  plan  through- 
out his  great  groups,  regardless  of  the  environment  that  they  were  to  occupy.  This,  however, 

12 


Would  be  like  an  architect  using  the  sanie  general  plan  for  a  dwelling,  business  block,  church 
or  school -house. 

2.  EVIDENCE  FROM  CONNECTING  GROUPS.     Forms  are   known  which   occupy  an  inter- 
mediate position  between  two  other  groups  having  characterics  common  to  the  two.   Most  of  the 
forms  of  plants  and  animals  that  lived  in  the  past  are  of  this  nature,  while  those  of  to-day  may 
connect  these  ancestral  forms  with  those  that  are  still  to  appear  upon  the  earth.    These  connect- 
ing forms  appear  to  bridge  the  gaps  between  related  groups  and  strongly  suggest  that  there  was 
an  actual  passage  from  one  to  the  other.     They  may  be  harmonized  with  the  special    creation 
theory  by  simply  assuming  that  the  CREATOR  saw  a  place  for  these  forms  and    created    them 
directly  without  reference  to  the  preceding,  or  the  following  groups. 

3.  EVIDENCE  FROM  GEOGRAPHIC  DISTRIBUTION.     All  closely  related  groups    (species) 
occupy  regions  of  geographic  proximity  upon  the  earth.     Their  distribution  over  the  earth  is 
most  satisfactorily  explained  by  assuming  that  they  all  originated    from    a    single    ancestral 
group,  in  a  single  locality  and  spread  from  this  as  a  center.     The  direction  of    migration  and 
the  distance  that  they  were  able  to  make  depended  upon  various  geographic  factors,    climatic 
conditions  and  their  powers  of  locomotion.     A  single  illustration  will  serve  to  show  the  bear- 
ing of  this  evidence  upon  the  doctrine  of  development.     The  humming-birds  are  confined  to 
North  and  South  America,  being  most  abundant  in  individuals  and  varieties  in  the    northern 
portion  of  South    America    and    diminishing  in  all  directions.     This  seems  to  imply  that  the 
group  originated  in  this  region  as  a  center,  that  they  were  somewhat  modified  by  getting  into 
different  environments  and  gradually  migrated  in  every  direction  favorable  for  their   distribu- 
tion.    Without  the  necessary  powers  of  flight  they  have  not  been  able  to  leave  the  continent. 
Had  they  been  made  by  methods  of  special  creation  it  would  seem  that  they  would  have  been 
distributed  more  or  less  uniformly  over  tli2  earth  in  those  environments  suitable  for  them.  The 
full   force  of  the  evidence  can  be  appreciated  only  when  one  makes  a  careful  study  of  the  dis- 
tribution of  a  large  number  of  plants  and  animals. 

4.  EVIDENCE   FROM  THE  GEOLOGICAL   RECORD.      From  a  study  of    the    table    given 
upon  page  10  it  is  seen  that  the  lower  groups  of  life  were  introduced  upon  the  earth  first    and 
that  these  were  followed  by  higher  and  higher  forms  successively,  the  highest  of  all  being  the 
last  to  appear.     This  is  just  the  order  in  which  these  groups  should  have  appeared   providing 
a  slow,  gradual,  progressive    development  had    taken  place,  so    that  the  theory    receives  this 
additional  support.     Under  the  sp2cial  creation  theory  this  would  have  been  a  natural    order 
of  creation,  providing  the  various  groups  were  not  all  created  at  the  same  time,  but   since    no 
change  in  the  forms  can  be  assumed,  'we  are  compelled  to  believe  that  at  the  close  of  each  suc- 
cessive period  practically  all  the  animal  and  plant  life  of  the  earth  was  annihilated.     With  the 
l)2gimiin.j  of    th;  tiixt  period  entirely  new  forms,  but  closely  resembling  those  that  had  just 
been  destroyed    must   have  been   created    by   divine   command.     The   improbability  of  this 
method  may  bs  seen  when  we  consider  any  single  form,  such  as  fossil  horses,  which  gradually 
grew  in  size  and  lost  their  digits  during  the  Cenozoic  era. 

5.  EVIDENCP;  FROM  RUDIMENTARY  STRUCTURES.     In  the  bodies  of  plants  and    animals 
there  occur  structures  that  appear  to  be  merely  the  vesliges  of  organs  that  were  once  functional 
and  presumably  well  developed.     The  two  miniature   stamens    in    the    Salvia,     the    "splint 
bones"  of  the  horse,  the  wings  of  the  penguin  and  Apteryx,  are  illustrations.     According  to 
the  theory   of   development  these  structures  furnish  evidence  that  the  forms  have  changed  as 
the  result  of  a  changed    environment  and  these  are  the  remnants  of  organs  originally  useful. 
Their  elimination  takes  place  with  extreme  slowness.     Under  the  special  creation  theory  we 
are  compelled  to  believe  that  these  structures  really  have  a  use,  yet  undiscovered,  or  else  that 
the  CREATOR  put  into  animals  and  plants  structures  without  use,  say  for  the  purpose  of  carry- 
ing out  a  regular  plan. 

6.  EVIDENCE  FROM  INDIVIDUAL  DEVELOPMENT.     A  study  of   the  life  history  of  indi- 
viduals shows  that  they  pa<s  through  a  series  of  stages  which  represent,  in  a  general  way,  the 
same  stages  through  which  the  group  to  which  it  belongs  must  have  passed  providing  it    had 
been  developed.     A  familiar  illustration  is  furnished  by  the  frog  which  begins  life  as  a  single 
cell,  which  divides  and  subdivides,  forming  a  solid  sphere  of  cells  (morn/a),  a   hollow  sphere 
with  a  single  layer  of  cells  (blastula'),  a  spheroid  with  a  double  layer  of  cells  {gastnda)  which 
elongates  and  acquires  the  foundation  of  a  vertebral  column.     From  this  stage  the  embryo  has 
all  the  essential  characteristics  of  ajis/i,  in  which  stage  it  lives  for  a  year,  when  it  sprouts  two 

13 


pairs  of  legs,  passes  into  the  salamandet  stage  having  all  the  characteristics  of  an  amphibian, 
finally  absorbing  its  tail  and  passing  into  the  adult  frog  stage.  The  toad  goes  through  a  simi- 
lar series  of  stages  but  much  more  rapidly  than  the  frog.  The  salamander  passes  through  the 
same  stages,  up  to  the  salamander  stage,  when  its  development  is  completed.  This  peculiar 
development  seems  to  indicate  that  these  three  amphibians  have  all  had  a  common  fish-like 
ancestor,  which  was  derived  in  turn  from  certain  special  forms  of  invertebrates.  It  is  but 
typical  of  the  general  development  of  animals  and  possibly  plants.  It  is  interpreted  as  mean- 
ing that  the  individual  has  to  be  developed  in  the  same  manner,  because  of  Nature's  uniform- 
ity. If  the  group  of  frogs  had  been  produced  by  special  creation  then  this  life  history  of  the 
frog  of  to-day  is  unintelligible.  Individual  frogs  should  now  be  produced  by  divine  command, 
or,  if  produced  through  the  agency  of  eggs,  these  should  contain  the  perfected  frog  in 
miniature. 

If  we  accept  the  statement  of  Mill,  that  "uniformity  in  the  course  of  Nature  must  remain 
as  the  ultimate  major  premise  of  all  inductions,"  then  this  slow,  progressive  development  of 
the  frog  from  the  single-celled  egg  to  the  adult  means  that  the  group  of  frogs  was  produced 
by  the  same  process.  With  unlimited  time  for  the  changes  from  stage  to  stage  to  take  place, 
the  passage  from  an  invertebrate  to  a  fish,  or  a  fish  to  an  amphibian,  is  far  less  wonderful 
than  that  which  we  behold  before  our  eyes  to-day  To  annihilate  each  group  successively 
and  re-create  a  higher  would  be  exactly  the  same  as  destroying  each  individual  at  the 
close  of  each  stage  and  creating  it  anew  upon  a  higher  plane. 


REFERENCE  LIST. 

1.  MANUAL  OF  ASTRONONY — Young.    Ginn  &  Co.,  1902. 

2.  WORLD-LIFE— Winchell.     S.  C.  Griggs  &  Co.,  1883. 

3.  SKETCHES  OF  CREATION — Winchell.     Harper  &  Bros.,  1870. 

4.  WALKS  AND  TALKS  IN  THE  GEOLOGICAL  FIELD — Winchell.      Chautauqua     Press, 

1886. 

5.  GEOLOGY,  VOL.  II — Chamberlin  &  Salisbury.     Holt  &  Co. ,  1906. 

6.  THE  STORY  OF  EARTH  AND  MAN — Dawson.     Harper  &  Bros.,  1873. 

7.  THE  GEOLOGICAL  HISTORY  OF  PLANTS — Dawson.     Appleton  &  Co.,  1892. 

8.  ANIMALS  BEFORE  MAN  IN  NORTH  AMERICA — Lucas.     Appleton  &  Co.,  1902. 

9.  ORIGIN  OF  SPECIES — Darwin.     Appleton  &  Co.,  1859. 
10.  TPIE  LIVING  WORLD — Conn.     Putnam's  Sons,  1891. 

n.  ORGANIC  EVOLUTION — Eimer  &  Cunningham.     Macmillan  &  Co.,  1890. 

12.  THE  METHOD  OF  EVOLUTION — Conn.     Putnam's  Sons,  1903. 

13.  THE  SURVIVAL  OF  THE  UNLIKE — Bailey.     Macmillan  &  Co.,  1901. 

14.  MATERIALS  FOR  THE  STUDY  OF  VARIATION — Bateson.      Macmillan  &  Co.,  1894. 

15.  EFFECTS  OF  USE  AND  DISUSE — Ball.     Macmillan  &  Co.,  1890. 

1 6.  PROBLEMS  OF  EVOLUTION — Headley.     Crowell  &  Co.,  1900. 

17.  CHAPTERS  ON  EVOLUTION — Wilson.     Putnam's  Sons,   1883. 

18.  FOOT-NOTES  TO  EVOLUTION — Jordon.     Appleton  &  Co.,  1900. 

19.  FROM  THE  GREEKS  TO  DARWIN — Osborn.     Macmillan  &  Co. ,  1894. 

20.  DARWIN  AND  AFTER  DARWIN — Romanes,    3  Vols.     Open  Court  Pub.  Co.,   1892-7. 

21.  DARWINISM — Wallace.     Macmillan  &  Co.,  1889. 

22.  EVOLUTION  AND  ADAPTATION — Morgan.     Macmillan  &  Co.,  1903. 

23.  NEW  CREATIONS  IN  PLANT  LIFE — Harwood.     Macmillan  &  Co.,  1905. 

24.  LAMARCK  AND  HIS  WORK — Packard.     Longmans,  Green  &  Co.,  1901. 

25.  THE  GERM-PLASM — Weismann.     Scribner's  Sons,  1893. 

26.  CHARLES  DARWIN,  HIS  LIFE  AND  WORK — Holder.     Putnam's  Sons,  1891. 

14 


CHAPTER  III.— THE  DEVELOPHENT  OF  THE  RACE. 


"Whence  our  race  has  come  ;  what  are  the  limits  of  our  power  over  Nature,  and  Nature's  power  over  us  ; 
to  what  goal  are  we  tending — these  are  the  problems  which  present  themselves  anew  and  with  undiminished 
interest  to  every  man  born  into  the  world. ' ' — Huxley. 


A.  Origin  of  the  Race.  Concerning  the  origin  of  the  human  race  upon  the  earth  it  is 
possible  to  hold  but  two  views  ;  either  man  was  transferred  to  this  planet  from  some  other,  or 
else  he  was  created  here.  It  is  seriously  held  by  some  that  the  planet  Mars  supports  life  of  a 
more  advanced  character  than  that  found  upon  the  earth.  If  this  life  includes  human  beings, 
the  miraculous  intervention  of  the  CREATOR  would  have  been  required  to  convey  them  to  the 
Earth,  and  to  adjust  them  to  the  supposedly  different  conditions  that  here  prevail.  So  far  as 
the  writer  is  aware  no  one  has  ever  seriously  proposed  such  a  view.  We  may  then  consider 
the  different  ways  in  which  he  might  have  been  created  here  ;  the  method  of  special  creation 
or  that  of  slow,  progressive  change  from  certain  higher  groups  already  in  existence.  If  the 
method  of  special  creation  had  been  employed  man  sprang  into  existence  by  divine  command, 
or  was,  as  many  crudely  imagine,  moulded  from  a  lump  of  clay  as  an  artist  makes  his  statue. 
Having  made  the  earth  and  its  various  life  groups  by  the  method  of  development  in  past  time, 
making  all  individual  animals  and  plants  to-day  by  this  same  method,  the  presumption  is  that 
the  CREATOR  would  not  discard  this  method  when  it  came  to  His  highest  creation — man. 

As  the  result  of  scientific  study  it  seems  more  plausible  that  the  progenitors  of  our  race 
were  derived  by  gradual  changes  wrought  upon  a  certain  group  of  man-like  brutes,  which 
found  themselves  in  an  environment  requiring  the  fuller  use  of  brain  and  less  of  muscle.  The 
evidences  of  such  an  origin  may  be  briefly  outlined  here. 

1.  The  general  plan  of  man's  body  and  its  microscopic  structure  relates   him  closely   to 
those  higher  mammals  that  are  especially  adapted  to  tree-climbing.     The   bony   system,    the 
muscles,  circulatory,    respiratory,    digestive   and   excretory  systems  are  essentially  identical. 
The  nervous  system  is  the  same,  differing  only  in  the  size  and  complexity  of  brain  development. 

2.  The  physiological  processes  that  take  place  in  his  body  are  identical  with  those  in  some 
of  the  lower  animals.     He  acquires  his  energy  and  liberates  it  in  the   same    way.     The    same 
diseases  may  affect  them  very  similarly,  indicating  not  simply  a  superficial  but  a  fundamental 
relationship. 

3.  There  occur  in  the  body  of  man  a  large  number  of  rudimentary  structures  ;  comprising 
muscles,  fragments  of  bones,  glands  and  portions  of  various   organs.     The   most   serious  of 
these  is  the  vermiform  appendix,  for  which  no  use  has  yet  been  found  and  which  is  a  constant 
menace  to  life.     The  only  reasonable  explanation  of  these  structures  is  that  they  hark  back  to 
a  state  of  development  when  they  were  useful  in  the  organism.     They  are  evidence  of  change 
in  structure  due  to  change  in  habits. 

4.  From  the  geological  record  we  learn  that  man  appeared  upon  earth  as  the  last  of  the 
series  of  great  mammal  creations.     He  has  made  his  way  to  those  portions  of  the  earth   only 
that  could  be  reached  through  his  own  efforts. 

5.  In   the   years   1891-2    Dr.  Eugene  Dubois  found  upon  the  island  of  Java  fragments  of 
the  skeleton  of  an  animal  that  originally  occupied  an  intermediate  position  between  the  lowest 
type  of  man  and  the  highest  known  brute.     To    this    creature    has    been    given    the    name 
Pithecanthropus  erectus,  meaning  the    "erect   ape-man."     It   appears  to  be  one  of  a  group  of 
forms  that  bridges  the  gap  between  man  and  the  lower  animals. 

6.  Careful  studies  upon  the  embryonic  development  of  the   child   shows  that   it  passes 
through  the  same   general  set  of  stages  as  do  those  of  the  higher  mammals,  suggesting   most 
strongly  actual  relationship.     This  series  of  stages  includes  all  those  through  which   the  frog 
may  be  observed    to   pass  and,  in  addition,  those  stages  belonging  to  reptiles  and  mammals. 


We  seem  to  have  here  an  epitome  of  the  entire  animal  creation,  most  suggestive  in  the  light 
of  development,  but  otherwise  without  meaning. 

B.  Early  Stage  of  Culture.     Whatever  view  is  held  concerning  the  origin  of  the  race, 
but  one  view  can  be  maintained   concerning  its  earliest  stage   of  culture.     All  the   scientific 
evidence  thus  far  available  points  to  the  fact  that  earliest  man  was  in  a    very    low    stage    of 
culture,  lower   than  that   of  any  savage  tribes  of  th?  present  day.     When  we  consider  that  if 
directly  created  he  might  as  well  have  been  started  upon  the  plane  of    civilization,    this    low 
stage  of  culture   furnishes  further  evidence  of  his  lowly  origin.     The  development  method, 
however,  necessitated  that  he  begin  at  the  first  round  of  the  ladder  and  that  he  work  his  work 
laboriously  to  the  top.     At  least  four  lines  of  evidence  of  his  low  culture  stage  may    here    be 
cited. 

1.  CONFORMATION  OF  SKULL.     A  study  of  the  most  primitive  skulls  known,  such  as  the 
Neanderthal  and  Spy,  shows  that  their  possessors  had  a  full  muscular  and  sense   development, 
but  combined  with  little  intellectuality.     The  heavy  supra-orbital  processes  are  suggestive  of 
struggle  and  combat.     The  human  character  of  the  first  of  these  skulls  was  for  a  time  ques- 
tioned but  it  is  now  conceded  that  the  skull  is  typical  of  very  early  man  and  that  it  marks  him 
as  a  very  low  savage. 

2.  UTENSILS  AND  IMPLEMENTS.     So  far  as  known  the  implements  of  primitive  man  were 
crudely  chipped  from  stone  and  showed  no  specialization,  the  same  article  serving  a  variety  of 
purposes.     They  were  such  as  some  of  the  lowest  races  of  to-day,  the  Bushmen  of  South  Africa, 
are  still  using.     Had  man   been  civilized  he  would  not  have  been  satisfied  with  such  utensils 
but  would  have  used  the  metals  and  invented  special  forms  for  special  uses.     There   is  reason 
for  thinking   that   before  man  had  learned  to  fashion  even  such  crude  articles,  he  used  simply 
those  that  Nature  had  already  shaped  for  him,  selecting  those  that  seemed  to  best  answer  his 
immediate  purpose.     The  gradual  development  of  man's  mind  is  clearly  seen  in  the  series  of 
implements,  more  and  more  improved  and  specialized,  that  mark  the  stages   in    his    upward 
progress^ 

3.  ABSENCE  OF  RELIGIOUS  BELIEFS.     All   savage  tribes  of   to-day   have   more   or    less 
religious  sentiment   and  some  form  of  worship.     Our  American  Indians  firmly  believed  in  the 
"happy  hunting  grounds"  and  buried  with  their  dead  warriors  their  favorite  weapons  of  war 
and  chase.     The  Mound  Builders  who  preceded  them  held  elaborate  burial  ceremonies  and  left 
behind  certain  evidence  of  their  belief  in  the  life  beyond  the   grave.     As  we  peer  farther  and 
farther  into  the  dim  past  we  find  less  and  less  evidence  of  such  religious,  or  superstitious  senti- 
ment.    In  the  case  of  the  most  primitive  type  of  man,  whose  remains  are  known,  we  have  no 
evidence  that  he  ever  buried  his  dead,  held  any  form  of  religious  observance,  made  an  idol  or 
erected   any   kind  of  monument.     The  evidence  is  entirely  negative  in  character  but  it  stamps 
primitive  man  as  standing  very  low  in  the  scale  of  culture. 

4.  ARBOREAL  HABIT.     A  comparison  of  the  bones  of  earliest  known  man  with  those    of 
the  present  day  shows  that  they  possess  characteristics  which  can  be  explained  only  upon  the 
supposition  that  primitive  man  was  a  tree-climber.     This  inconvenient  mode  of  life  was  forced 
upon  him  because  of  his  inability  to  cope  with  the  fierce  Cenozoic  animals  with  which  he    was 
surrounded.     Had  he  been  even  partialy  civilized  he  would  have  invented  suitable  weapons  and 
united  with  his  fellows  in  a  fierce  war  of  extermination.     That  he  did   not  do   so  at   once   is 
evidence  that   he   lived  upon  a  low  culture  plane.     The  skeletal  evidence  of  his  tree-climbing 
habit  is  shown  in  the  relatively  greater  length  of  arms  ;  the  "perforation   of   the   humerus  ;" 
the  shorter,  curved  legs  ;  the  "  flattening  of   the   tibia;"    the   narrow,  elongated    pelvis;  the 
curvature  of  the  spinal  column  and  the  position  of  the  head  upon    the  spinal  column.     With 
his  dwelling  established  upon  the  ground  there    was  less   and  less  climbing    done  and   these 
characteristics  have  been  slowly  eliminated  from  the  human  skeleton. 

C.  Stages  in  Race  Progress.     Starting  with   man  in  this  low  culture  stage  it  is  now  a 
matter  of  interest  and  importance  to  follow  him  in  his  heroic  struggle  for  existence,  to  see  how 
the  four  principles  of  selection  have  helped  along  those  individuals  and  races   that   were  most 
worthy  of  such  help  and  have  eliminated  those  that  might  retard  progress  towards  the  highest 
goal.     Nature,    the   relentless  enemy  of  the   many,  selected    as  her  favorites  those  most  Jit, 
either  by  endowment  or  acquisition,  and  for  these  she  has  opened  her  bountiful  hand. 

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t.  ARBOREAL  STAGE.  The  evidence  that  driniitive  mun  spent  hiuch  time  in  and  about 
the  trees,  and  presumably  had  his  crude  home  there,  is  shown  in  the  characteristics  of  the 
skeletons  of  his  more  immediate  descendants.  According  to  the  development  theory  his  body 
and  probably  his  mind  had  been  derived  from  a  tree-climbing  creature  that  lived  in  some 
tropical,  or  sub-tropical  forest  region.  In  the  light  of  our  present  knowledge  we  may  select 
the  islands  immediately  south  of  Asia  as  the  most  likely  cradle  of  the  human  race.  Inherit- 
ing then  the  necessary  structures  and  instincts  it  is  to  be  supposed  that  he  simply  continued 
the  life  of  his  ancestors,  after  he  had  risen  to  the  human  plane.  Surrounded  by  the  powerful 
and  ferocious  beasts  of  the  later  Cenozoic  time  and  greatly  inferior  to  them  physically,  he  was 
Le/er  safe  upon  the  ground,  even  in  his  waking  moments.  His  method  of  climbing  is  sup- 
posed to  have  been  similar  to  that  now  practiced  by  the  higher  apes  and  some  savage  peoples  ; 
placing  the  soles  of  the  feet  against  the  side  of  the  tree  and  holding  the  upper  part  of  the  body 
at  arm's  length.  Clothing  and  shoes  were  unnecessary  and  would  have  seriously  impeded  his 
movements.  His  body  was  protected  by  a  light  covering  of  hair.  His  food  was  vegetable  in 
large  part  and  uncooked,  he  not  yet  having  domesticated  fire.  Language  probably  consisted 
of  inarticulate  calls  and  cries  by  which  were  expressed  simple  wants  and  ideas.  Weapons  only 
of  wood  were  probably  at  first  used  and  discarded  when  no  longer  needed.  These  were  very 
ineffective  against  the  large  mammals  of  the  time  and  kept  man  in  a  continual  state  of  fear. 
He  was  biding  his  time  !  Darkness  brought  to  him  terrors  both  real  and  imaginary  and  his 
bete  noire  was  probably  the  terrible  boas  and  pythons  that  could  follow  him  to  his  very  shelter, 
as  the  dog  family  and  larger  cats  and  bears  could  not  do.  Of  high  winds  and  the  lightning's 
flash  he  stood  in  wholesome  fear.  He  acquired  a  sufficient  knowledge  of  plants  to  enable  him 
to  select  those  suitable  for  food  and  to  leave  alone  those  that  were  unfit  or  poisonous.  His 
knowledge  of  animals  was  limited  mainly  to  knowing  how  to  escape  their  fangs  and  claws. 
By  long  residence  under  these  arboreal  conditions  the  human  eye  became  adapted  to  the  color 
chlorophyll  green.  The  social  unit  was  the  family,  plus  or  minus  the  father,  the  care  of  the 
children  devolving  mainly  upon  the  mother.  The  younger  children  were  carried  upon  her 
back  in  order  that  her  arms  might  be  free  for  climbing.  Those  unable  to  cling  sooner  or  later 
lost  their  lives  by  falling,  leading  to  a  survival  of  those  best  fitted  to  this  mode  of  life.  It 
seems  likely  that  crude  cradles  of  vines,  or  tough  bark,  were  eventually  invented  by  which 
means  the  children  could  be  swung  from  the  branches,  or  more  conveniently  carried  upon  the 
back.  Under  this  strenuous  life  parental  care  must  necessarily  cease  at  a  relatively  early  age 
and  the  young  then  became  largely  dependent  upon  their  own  efforts.  Egoism  was  in  the 
ascendency.  No  region  could  support  much  of  a  population  and  as  the  numbers  increased  the 
weaker  individuals  were  crowded  into  the  surrounding  regions,  more  or  less  unfavorable,  and 
demanding  adjustment  of  habits  to  new  conditions.  Upon  the  ground  this  type  of  man  was 
unsteady,  walking  more  largely  upon  the  outer  edge  of  the  foot  and  probably  securing  more 
perfect  balance  by  placing  the  hands  upon  the  ground. 

2.  HUNTING  AND  FISHING  STAGE.  Through  a  combination  of  circumstances  pmbably, 
rather  than  to  any  one,  certain  individuals,  or  groups  of  individuals,  gradually  gave  up  their 
arboreal  habit  and  lived  more  fully  upon  the  ground.  This  may  have  been  brought  about  by 
the  discovery  of  the  use  of  stone  for  weapons  and  the  advantages  of  co-operation  in  fighting 
enemies.  The  "taming  of  fire,"  so  that  it  might  be  employed  in  man's  defense  against  wild 
animals,  may  have  been  an  important  factor  in  this  forward  step  of  the  race.  In  part,  it  may 
have  been  forced  upon  man  by  his  inability  to  find  suitable  trees  for  homes,  the  scarcity  of 
food  or  the  necessity  of  obtaining  clothing  in  those  less  congenial  regions  into  which  he  had 
bean  crowded.  This  change  in  environment  called  at  once  for  new  habits  of  living,  necessi- 
tated new  structures,  or  rather  the  modification  of  old  ones.  In  order  to  wield  his  newly  dis- 
covered weapons  he  must  stand  erect  and  secure  stability  and  fleetness.  This  called  for  a 
readjustment  of  muscular  and  skeletal  development  and  alterations  in  the  various  proportions 
of  the  body  ;  changes  which  are  still  in  progress  in  the  body  of  civilized  man. 

With  certain  divisions  of  the  race  this  stage  of  mankind  has  continued  to  the  present  day 
(American  Indian)  and  in  the  long  time  involved,  migrations,  impossible  in  the  preceding  stage, 
distributed  man  over  the  greater  part  of  the  habitable  globe.  The  most  marked  improvement 
took  place  in  every  direction  now  that  his  mental  powers  were  fully  aroused.  Had  he  been 
superior  physically  to  the  animals  about  him  his  mental  development  would  have  been  greatly 
retarded,  if  not  absolutely  checked.  Beginning  with  stones  shapen  only  by  Nature  he  learned 

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to  chip  them  into  shape  by  striking  the  two  together.  At  first  all  his  tools  and  weapohs  were 
combined  into  a  single  type  shaped  like  an  almond  and  used  on  the  point.  Presently  he  made 
tools  and  weapons  separately,  of  special  designs  and  materials  and  polished  some  of  them.  In 
regions  where  caverns  abounded  these  were  utilized  as  homes,  in  other  regions  crude  shelters 
of  bark,  sod,  or  leaves  were  constructed.  As  the  population  of  a  region  increased  the  game 
was  soon  killed  off,  or  frightened  away  and  must  be  followed,  necessitating  a  portable  home. 
This  was  made  of  vegetable  material,  such  as  birch  bark  where  this  was  available,  or  of  skins 
of  animals.  This  type  of  home,  the  wigwam  or  tepee,  assumed  the  most  favorable  form  for 
such  a  house,  that  of  a  cone.  Can  you  discover  all  the  advantages? 

Co-operation  in  war  and  chase  was  found  highly  advantageous  and  this  was  possible  only 
by  a  more  complete  language.  Man  now  became  a  gregarious  and  social  creature.  With 
success  came  confidence  in  himself ;  with  this  confidence  came  physical  bravery  and  eventually 
love  of  the  approbation  of  his  fellows.  In  the  field  the  leadership  of  the  strongest,  bravest, 
most  skillful  and  shrewdest  was  unconsciously  recognized,  either  because  he  forged  ahead  or 
the  others  slunk  behind.  In  camp  they  admired  and  respected  his  ability  and  the  offce  of 
chief  was  established.  Success  in  hunting  brought  them  abundant  food,  of  the  most  nutritious 
character,  materials  for  homes,  clothing,  various  weapons  and  utensils.  At  first  eaten  raw  the 
advantage  of  cooking  meat  was  discovered  probably  by  accident.  Roasting  and  broiling  over 
the  camp  fire  was  first  done  and  boiling  by  means  of  hot  stones  considerably  later.  Skins  used 
for  clothing  were  at  first  simply  dried,  after  the  flesh  was  removed,  and  became  hard.  Wher- 
ever they  rubbed  the  body  uncomfortably  it  would  seem  natural  to  pound  such  portions  in 
order  to  soften  them  and  tanning  was  discovered,  to  be  later  experimented  with  and  improved 
upon.  Those  people  having  access  to  bodies  of  water  would  learn  how  to  capture  fish  by 
various  devices.  Beginning  with  a  floating  log  they  devised  the  light  canoe. 

During  this  stage  the  specialization  of  the  work  of  man  and  woman  began.  The  man 
being  naturally  the  stronger  assumed  the  duties  of  the  war  and  the  chase,  the  protection  of 
the  home  and  the  securing  of  game.  To  the  woman  was  entrusted  the  care  of  the  younger 
children,  the  preparation  of  food,  the  making  of  clothing  and  the  making  and  erection  of  the 
tepee.  The  gathering  of  available  vegetable  food  in  the  immediate  neighbhood  of  the  camp, 
the  making  of  baskets,  or  pottery,  to  hold  such  was  left  also  to  the  woman.  With  some 
peoples  it  is  probable  that  a  little  elementary  agriculture  was  carried  on  about  the  camp,  as  far 
as  the  nomadic  life  permitted,  this  work  being  also  entrusted  to  the  women.  In  case  the 
slaughtered  game  was  accompanied  by  young  that  refused  to  escape,  these  would  be  taken  to 
camp  alive  and  turned  over  to  the  women  and  children  for  their  entertainment.  Most  animals 
would  thus  lose  much  of  their  wild  nature  and  the  idea  of  domestication  of  animals  was  well 
started.  In  the  hunting  stage  the  dog  and  the  horse  were  the  most  serviceable  animals  and 
these  were  early  domesticated  and  shared  the  fortunes  of  primitive  man  in  his  wanderings. 

In  the  evenings  camp  fires  were  lighted  for  the  sake  of  the  warmth  when  needed,  to  cook 
the  evening  meal  and  very  often  to  frighten  away  savage  beasts,  with  which  the  fear  of  fire  is 
instinctive.  The  narration  of  the  day's  experience  was  natural,  furnishing  instruction  and 
entertainment.  The  meager  language  of  the  time  permitted  only  imperfect  accounts  of  the 
varied  happenings  of  the  day  and  gesture  and  pantomime  supplied  what  the  language  failed  to 
depict.  When  participated  in  by  several,  and  accompanied  by  the  chant,  the  rattle,  tom-tom, 
or  drum,  we  have  the  starting  of  music  and  the  dance-  Attempts  to  explain  phenomena  that 
they  could  not  fully  understand  led  to  the  myth.  The  happenings  in  the  world  about  them 
and  the  deeds  of  their  greatest  warriors  furnished  the  basis  for  their  legends  and  folk-lore,  from 
which  were  developed  literature  and  history.  From  this  imperfect  knowledge  of  their  reg'on 
and  its  plants  and  animals  arose  geography  and  science,  attempts  to  express  how  much  and  how 
many  led  to  the  development  of  number.  The  earliest  known  drawings  are  representations  of 
of  wild  animals.  From  the  days'  necessities  and  the  evenings'  pastimes  were  started  the 
thought  and  expression  work  of  the  present  day. 

Private  ownership  extended  to  the  home  and  its  meager  equipment,  articles  of  clothing, 
adornment,  weapons  and  untensils,  the  few  domesticated  animals,  etc.  The  fields,  forests, 
streams  and  lakes,  with  their  game  and  fish,  were  all  held  in  common  by  the  tribe  in  possession 
of  the  region.  The  impulse  to  live  was  the  controlling  motive  in  the  breast  of  every  individual. 
Self-preservation  must  be  secured  at  all  hazards,  after  this  the  preservation  of  family  and 
friends.  In  order  to  secure  food  deception  and  trickery  must  be  practiced  upon  the  animals. 

18 


Man  must  lie  in  hiding,  entice  the  animals  to  their  doom  by  false  calls,  dig  pit-falls,  set  traps, 
bait  hooks,  etc.  Sympathy  for  wild  life  had  not  yet  shown  herself  upon  earth.  Other  men 
who  were  strangers  were  simply  more  dangerous  animals,  to  be  disposed  of  with  the  utmost 
expedition,  and  with  never  a  thought  of  mercy  or  fairness.  The  type  man  of  this  stage  was 
selfish,  cruel  and  blood-thirsty,  impulsive,  deceitful  and  with  but  little  respect  for  property 
rights.  These  traits  of  character  he  had  inherited  from  the  past  and  his  existence  depended 
upon  their  retention.  They  are  not  entirely  unknown  to-day  amongst  peoples  professing  civil- 
ization. Look  over  the  morning's  paper  for  illustrations.  Primitive  man,  however,  is  not  to 
be  judged  by  ethical  standards  of  the  present  day.  He  secured  for  him  and  his,  personal  safety, 
comfort  and,  as  far  as  possible,  happiness.  According  to  the  philosophy  of  Herbert  Spencer 
he  did  right  and  his  conscience  approved. 

The  study  of  Nature  was  a  marked  advance  over  that  of  arboreal  man.  It  was  one  thing 
to  keep  out  of  the  clutches  of  the  man-eating  beasts,  but  quite  another  to  be  able  to  capture 
and  eat  them.  The  herbivorous  animals  were  shy  and  wary  and  must  have  their  habits  well 
understood  in  order  to  be  successfully  hunted.  The  capture  of  wild  fowl  and  fish  taxed  man's 
shrewdness  to  the  utmost.  Roving  from  place  to  place  man  had  to  become  acquainted  with  a 
wider  range  of  plants  in  order  to  select  those  suitable  for  food  and  to  let  alone  those  that  were 
poisonous.  Real  or  imaginary  medicinal  qualities  of  plants  were  discovered  from  time  to  time. 
In  order  to  select  suitable  material  for  his  weapons  and  untensils  primitive  man  must  study 
the  minerals  and  rocks  and  make  a  search  for  them.  To  plan  for  successful  expeditions  of 
war  and  the  chase,  to  protect  himself  most  fully  against  the  rigors  of  the  climate,  he  must  be 
able  to  predict  the  weather.  The  fullest  success  in  his  warfare  against  animate  and  inanimate 
Nature  demanded  that  he  know  his  "home  geography."  In  all  cases  this  Nature  knowledge 
was  acquired  not  because  man  had  developed  any  students'  instincts,  but  because  is  was  essen- 
tial to  his  existence.  Those  unwilling,  indifferent  or  incapable  of  such  study  were  displaced 
by  others  more  fit.  The  method,  in  the  main,  was  direct  contact  with  Nature  in  field  and  for- 
est and  the  effect  was  robustness  of  body,  symmetrical  development  of  the  muscles  and  motor 
centers,  the  fullest  possible  development  of  sense  organs  and  sense  centers,  the  strengthing  of 
associative  memory  and  imagination.  The  mathematical  and  reasoning  powers  received  scant 
training. 

3.  PASTORAL  STAGE.  With  the  discovery  that  the  wild  nature  of  some  animals  could 
be,  in  a  large  part,  overcome  through  domestication  certain  groups  of  individuals  gradually 
acquired  sufficient  numbers  of  such  animals  to  demand  their  attention.  From  these  flocks 
and  herds  they  found  that  they  could  procure  food,  clothing  and  materials  for  shelter  and  that 
the  supply  was  adequate,  more  conveniently  procured  and  always  at  hand.  The  natural  in- 
crease of  their  flocks  required  that  more  and  more  time  be  spent  upon  their  care  and  protection, 
leaving  them  less  and  less  time  to  devote  to  the  chase.  With  all  their  wants  provided  there 
was  little  inducement  now  to  hunt  and  in  regions  where  game  was  scarce  the  hunter  became  a 
herder.  The  change  was  brought  about  independently  by  various  peoples,  the  details  of  which 
varied  with  the  region  and  the  type  of  the  domesticated  animal.  In  the  mountainous  districts 
the  sheep  were  domesticated,  upon  the  plains  horses  and  oxen,  in  the  far  north-land  the  rein- 
deer. In  most  cases  the  dog  was  found  to  be  of  much  service  in  the  care  and  protection  of 
the  herds  and  in  guarding  the  camp.  He  was  made  a  part  of  the  family  and  by  unconscious 
selection  various  varieties  were  started. 

Since  the  animals  would  presently  exhaust  the  pasturage  of  a  region  it  was  necessary  to 
maintain  the  nomadic  habit  in  order  to  secure  food  and  water.  This  necessitated  a  portable 
house,  with  its  limited  supply  of  conveniences.  The  animals  could  be  utilized  for  purposes  of 
transportation  of  the  camp.  In  the  early  stages  the  tepees  were  made  of  skins;  later,  in  the 
case  of  certain  people,  of  cloth.  In  order  to  better  care  for  and  protect  their  stock  several 
families  lived  together  holding  the  animals  in  common.  So  long  as  all  went  well  there  was 
enough  for  all  and  to  spare.  This  less  strennous  life  was  favorable  for  sociality  and  story -tell- 
ing, dancing  and  singing  were  further  developed.  The  various  expression  subjects;  language, 
drawing,  numbers,  music,  etc.,  were  advanced  beyond  their  position  reached  in  the  preceding 
stage.  The  "picture-writing"  of  the  hunting  peoples  had  become  more  symbolic  and  a  step 
made  towards  phonetic  writing  and  the  alphabet.  Amongst  certain  people  the  art  of  spinning 
and  weaving  was  discovered,  suggested  probably  by  the  basketry  or  fishing-nets  of  the  hunt- 
ing stage. 

19 


complete  welfare  of  these  people  depended  Upon  their  providing  favorable  conditions 
for  their  herds  and  flocks.  Good  water,  suitable  and  sufficient  food  must  be  found  ;  the}'  must 
be  protected  against  the  rigors  of  climate  and  from  the  wild  beasts  of  the  region.  The  result 
of  this  constant  oversight  and  care,  as  pointed  out  by  Miss  Dopp,  was  to  develop  sympathetic 
relations  between  man  and  his  animals.  When  they  suffered,  he  suffered.  Individual  mem- 
bers of  the  flocks  were  sacrificed  only  when  actually  needed  for  food  or  clothing.  That  which 
we  voluntarily  care  for  we  soon  learn  to  love,  whether  it  is  a  house-plant,  a  dog,  cat  or  only  a 
homely  toad.  The  blood-thirsty  savage  of  the  previous  age,  delighting  in  the  slaughter  and 
torture  of  all  animal  life,  wras  being  transformed  and  humanized.  Gentler  relations  with  his 
fellows  were  established,  the  sick  and  agecl  no  longer  must  be  murdered,  or  abandoned  to  their 
fate,  upon  the  march.  A  closer  bond  between  children  and  parents  sprang  up  because  no 
single  individual  could  separate  himself  from  the  group  and  long  maintain  himself.  The 
maternal  care  of  the  Apache  mother  ceases  when  the  child  can  pluck  a  certain  kind  of  fruit 
and,  by  its  own  efforts,  capture  a  rat.  So  long  as  their  most  valued  possessions  were  upon  legs 
and  could  be  driven  away  there  was  great  inducement  for  plunder.  These  pastoral  people  were 
in  almost  constant  danger  of  attack  and  must  hold  themselves  in  readiness  for  such  an  emer- 
gency. Woe  betide  the  group  that  forgot  or  neglected  the  arts  of  war!  Bold,  full  of  energy 
and  daring  in  the  face  of  danger,  but  not  without  sympathy  toward  strangers  whose  good 
intentions  were  assured.  They  could  even  afford  to  be  generous  and  hospitable.  Altruism 
was  being  born. 

4.  AGRICULTURAL  STAGE.  The  use  of  plants  for  food  had  continued  from  the  arboreal 
stage  ;  first,  to  supplement  the  occasionally  meager  supply  of  game  and  fish  and  second,  to 
furnish  desirable  variety  from  the  carnivorous  diet.  Roots,  leaves,  steins,  berries,  nuts,  seeds 
and  the  inner  bark  of  trees  were  thus  utilized.  The  collection  of  such  foods  was  left  mainly 
to  the  women  and  children.  Simple  attempts  at  agriculture  were  begun  by  the  women  of  the 
hunting  people  and  continued  by  those  of  the  pastoral  when  they  were  favorably  located.  The 
idea  that  plants,  as  well  as  animals,  could  be  domesticated  and,  under  favorable  conditions  made 
to  yield  abundantly,  was  not  entirely  new.  Favorite  plants  were  probably  transplanted  in 
small  plats,  or  started  from  the  seed,  and  there  kept  free  from  weeds.  The  advantage  of 
stirring  the  soil  was  accidentally  discovered  and  digging-sticks  and  stones  were  made  use  of. 
It  would  seem  that  the  use  of  fertilizers  was  dimly  understood  by  even  the  hunting  people, 
since  the  Indians  are  said  to  have  informed  the  early  settlers  that  burying  a  dead  fish  in  a  hill 
of  corn  would  increase  the  yield. 

With  a  knowledge  of  the  simple  methods  and  advantages  of  agriculture  it  seems  likely 
that  the  transition  from  the  pastoral  to  the  agricultural  stage  was  brought  about  by  the  stress 
of  circumstances.  It  was  started  when  the  men  began  to  turn  their  attention  to  what,  at  first, 
must  have  seemed  beneath  their  dignity.  The  life  was  so  much  more  laborious  and  so  free 
from  excitement  that  it  does  not  seem  that  it  would  have  been  undertaken  voluntarily.  The 
loss  of  their  flocks  by  disease,  cold  or  plunder  would  compel  a  group  either  to  fall  back  upon 
the  chase,  or  to  seek  out  a  favorable  location  and  wrest  a  livelihood  from  the  soil.  In  certain 
mountainous  regions,  where  relatively  few  cattle,  goats  and  sheep  could  be  supported  in  a 
given  area,  it  was  possible  for  small  villages  to  spring  up  in  the  valleys,  w^here  conditions  were 
favorable  for  limited  agriculture.  Portions  of  the  population  would  devote  themselves  during 
the  summer  mainly  to  the  care  of  the  animals,  while  others  would  raise  hay  and  grain  for  their 
winter  use,  along  with  vegetables  and  other  food  stuffs.  In  this  way  the  change  from  the 
pastoral  to  the  agricultural  stage  was  a  gradual  one  and,  with  the  discovery  that  a  rather  lim- 
ited area  could  be  made  to  support  a  large  population,  more  and  more  land  wrould  be  brought 
under  cultivation. 

In  order  to  care  properly  for  the  crops  some  kind  of  permanent  home,  within  easy  reach, 
was  necessary.  The  nomadic  habit  must  be  given  up  and  for  the  first  time  in  its  history  the 
race  became  sedentary.  There  was  now  an  incentive  to  build  a  larger  and  a  better  home,  pro- 
vided with  crude  articles  of  furniture,  such  as  beds,  tables,  stools  and  benches.  The  fire  was 
brought  indoors  and,  at  first,  served  for  cooking,  heating  and  lighting.  The  materials  of 
which  the  house  was  constructed  varied  with  the  people  and  the*region,  being  made  of  sod, 
sun-baked  clay,  rough  stone,  bark  or  logs.  It  was  quite  possible  and  desirable  often  to  group 
them  into  small  villages  and  the  necessity  for  some  social  organization  arose.  Grains,  berries, 
fruits  and  vegetables  were  cultivated,  along  with  grasses  for  the  winter  use  of  the  few  animals 

20 


still  retained  for  food  and  beasts  of  burden.  The  first  digging  stones  Were  replaced  by  stone 
hoes  with  handles,  and  strong,  sharpened  sticks  drawn  by  animals  became  plows.  All  the 
various  handicrafts  and  inventions  that  had  been  started  in  the  hunting  and  pastoral  stages 
underwent  a  rapid  and  fuller  development  during  the  agricultural  stage,  because  of  the  greater 
opportunity  and  necessity.  The  mortar  and  pestle  for  cracking  and  grinding  grains  and  seeds, 
were  replaced  by  heavy  stones  turned  one  over  the  other,  first  by  hand  power  and  then  by  ani- 
mals. The  grains  first  gathered  and  threshed  by  hand,  were  cut  with  knives,  threshed  by  flails, 
and  later  by  animals.  Owing  to  the  inconvenience  of  transporting  it  in  the  nomadic  stages, 
the  industry  of  making  pottery  could  not  flourish  until  the  permanent  home  was  secured. 
Cooking  vessels,  water  jars  and  various  dishes  were  devised  and  elaborately  ornamented. 
Methods  of  cooking  underwent  a  corresponding  development  from  the  simple  roasting-  and 
broiling  over  the  camp  fire.  Various  peoples  have  devised  ingenious  methods  of  getting  fire, 
the  most  primitive  of  which  was  probably  that  of  striking  together  two  pieces  of  chert  or  flint. 
In  chipping  their  crude  implements  the  sparks  were  observed  and  when  alighting  upon  the 
skin  they  were  found  to  be  hot.  Either  by  accident,  or  deliberate  intent,  their  effect  upon  a 
very  combustible  substance  was  discovered.  The  heating  effect  of  friction  was  discovered  and 
made  use  of  in  a  variety  of  ways  for  getting  fire,  different  people  using  the  fire-plow,  the  fire- 
saw  and  fire-drill.  The  various  industries  required  for  the  manufacture  of  clothing  were  per- 
fected by  the  women  and  garments  of  special  design  and  materials  produced,  adapted  to  the 
season. 

This  manner  of  life  was  so  arduous  that  it  exhausted  the  surplus  energies  of  a  commun- 
ity; so  free  from  excitement  that  it  eliminated  the  wild,  boisterous  spirit  of  the  shepherd  and 
cow-boy.  With  his  main  treasures  in  land  which  could  neither  be  carried  away,  nor  utilized 
by  hunting  and  pastoral  man  ;  in  crops  or  stores  of  grain  not  easily  transported  ;  the  agricult- 
ural people  did  not  invite  attack.  They  gradually  lost  the  warlike  spirit  of  their  ancestors  and 
entered  upon  a  peaceful,  quiet  life,  that  called  for  and  gave  opportunity  for  thought  and  re- 
flection. The  settled  life  gave  great  stability  to  such  a  population,  their  land  and  homes  were 
to  be  defended  at  all  hazards,  since  they  could  not  be  moved.  They  made  use  of  fortifications 
into  which  they  could  retreat  in  case  of  attack  and  these  they  defended  to  the  last.  A  spirit 
of  patriotism,  not  previously  known,  was  aroused  and  developed.  Certain  individuals  were 
especially  trained  for  the  common  defense.  Captives  could  now  be  utilized  in  the  fields  as 
never  before  and  the  institution  of  slavery  was  started.  From  the  brutish  tree-climber,  the 
savage  hunter  and  the  barbarous  herder,  we  have  at  last  reached  the  humanized  and  civil 
farmer, 

5.     MANUFACTURING  STAGE.     As  the  farmer  and  his  sons  became  more  and  more  ambi- 
tious in  their  agriculture  there  was  a  demand  for  improved  tools  by  which  the  man  and  his  beasts 
of  burden  could  secure  the  maximum  return  for  their  labor.     Those   most   ingenious   devised 
implements   for  which  there  was  a  demand,  and  to  supply  these,  certain  ones  undertook  their 
mamifacture.     Wood,  coal  and  metal  were  demanded  and  other  groups  of  individuals  were  set 
to   lumbering  and  mining.     The  materials   so  obtained   were  used    in  the   construction  of  the 
manufacturing  plants,  the  homes  for   the  workmen,  the  articles  manufactured,  the  machinery 
employed  and  the  fuels  required.     To  shift  the  raw  materials  to  the  place   of  manufacture,  to 
get  the  manufactured  products  to  the  farmer,  as  well  as  his  food  products  back  to    the   work- 
men, necessitiated  more  and  more  efficient  means  of  transportation.     Other  manufactories  were 
started  later  to  supply  the  farmers  and  other  laborers  with  clothing,  hats,  footwear,  household 
articles  and   tools  required  in   their  various   lines  of  work.     In  a  system  becoming  more  and 
lore  complicated  it  was   impracticable  to  exchange  directly  a   certain  amount  of  grain    for  a 
:ythe  or  suit  of   clothes  and  some   medium  of  exchange  must  be  devised.     Mints  and  banks, 
nth  their  cheques,  promissory  notes  and  tables  of  interest,  are  the  result.     In  order  to  facili- 
ite  business  there  have  sprung  up  the  newspaper,  the  post,  the  telegraph  and  telephone.    To 
ittle  disputes  and  see  that  all  get  their  individual  rights  we  have  our  lawyers,  judges  and  of- 
icers  of  the  law;  to  look  after  our  physical  welfare  we  have  our  physicians,  surgeons  and  drug- 
gists; to  attend  to  the  moral   and  spiritual  welfare  of  struggling  humanity  we  have  our  minis- 
and  pastors;  and,    finally,  to   adjust    the  children  most    wisely  and  efficiently  to  this  most 
>mplicated  state  of  society  we  have  our  teachers.     No  teacher  can  do  this  most    intelligently 
md  sympathetically  who  does  not  know  the  weary  path  that  has  been  trodden  by  the  race  and 
fho  does  not  understand  the  natural  course  of  child  development. 

21 


General  Summary  of  Race  Development. 


LEADING  OCCUPATION. 


TYPES  OF  DWELLINGS. 


CHARACTERISTIC  MATERIALS 


VI.  Manufacturing. 

V.  Agricultural. 

IV.  Pastoral. 

III.  Hunting  and  Fishing. 

II.  Hunting. 

I.  Climbing. 


7.  Modern  houses;  frame,  brick,  stone,  cement. 

6.  Cabins  ;  sod,  adobe,  stone,  log. 

5.  Cloth  Shelters  ;  tents. 

4.  Skin  Shelters  ;  wigwams,  tepees. 

3.  Plant  Shelters ;  boughs,  leaves,  grass,  bark. 

2.  Caverns  and  rock  shelters. 

I.  Tree  homes. 


f.  Iron. 

e.  Bronze  or  copper. 

d.  Polished  stone. 

c.  Chipped  stone. 

b.  Unshapen  stone. 

a.  Wood. 


In  the  classifications  of  the  various  steps  in  race  progress  upon  the  three  different  bases 
given  above,  it  is  not  to  be  assumed  that  the  stages  of  one  correspond  necessarily  to  those  of 
the  others.  Neither  is  it  to  be  supposed  that  each  race  of  people  to-day  has  traversed  the 
entire  series.  In  New  Guinea  and  along  the  Amazon  and  its  tributaries  there  are  tribes  that 
still  utilize  the  trees  for  their  homes,  but  using  improved  methods  of  reaching  them.  When 
America  was  discovered  the  eastern  Indian  was  in  the  hunting  and  fishing  stage,  using  skin 
or  plant  shelters  and  only  stone  and  wood  for  his  weapons.  In  the  middle  west  he  had  dis- 
placed the  so-called  "mound-builders,"  a  race  that  appears  to  have  reached  the  lower  agricult- 
ural stage,  having  settled  homes,  extensive  fortifications  and  utilizing  copper  and  silver.  The 
Eskimo  in  America  have  reached  an  advanced  hunting  and  fishing  stage,  while  their  represent- 
atives in  Kurope  and  Asia  have  domesticated  the  reindeer  and  advanced  into  the  pastoral.  This 
is  as  high  a  stage  of  culture  as  their  environment  will  permit.  The  United  States  government 
is  at  present  trying  the  experiment  of  introducing  the  reindeer  into  Alaska,  teaching  the  na- 
tives how  to  care  for  it  and  thus  lifting  them  bodily  to  a  higher  plane  of  culture,  (National 
Geographic  Magazine,  Vol.  XIV,  p.  127  and  Vol.  XVII,  p.  69).  This  promises  now  to  be  a 
success  and  a  great  boon  to  the  Eskimo.  In  trying  to  forcethe  Indian  hunter  into  the  agri- 
cultural stage  the  American  government  is  not  meeting  with  all  the  success  hoped  for  and  for 
the  reason  that  the  step  is  too  great  a  one  to  be  made  so  suddenly.  The  transition  from  the 
hunter  to  the  herder  could  have  been  made  with  relative  ease  and,  in  the  light  of  our  present 
knowledge,  it  should  have  helped  the  Indians  to  have  acquired  flocks,  instead  of  farms. 

It  is  well  to  note  that,  with  the  exception  of  the  tree-climbing  which  has  been  largely  dis- 
pensed with,  it  is  still  necessary  that  certain  individuals  devote  themselves  to-day  to  those 
activities  which  characterized  the  stages  of  the  race.  The  numbers  so  employed  sustain  a 
direct  relation  to  the  remoteness  of  the  stage.  About  one-half  our  population  are  engaged 
directly  in  agriculture;  a  considerable,  but  much  smaller  percent,  devote  their  lives  to]the  rear- 
ing of  animals;  while  still  fewer  are  engaged  in  fishing  and  hunting,  as  a  livelihood. 


22 


REFERENCE  LIST. 

1.  PREHISTORIC  RACES  OP  THE  UNITED  STATES — Foster.     Griggs  &  Co.,  1873. 

2.  PREHISTORIC  MAN — Wilson.     2  Vols.     The  Macmillan  Co.,  1876. 

3.  ANCIENT  AMERICA — Baldwin.     Harper  Bros.,  1878. 

4.  PREHISTORIC  TIMES — Lubbock.     Appleton  &  Co.,  1878. 

5.  EARLY  MAN  IN  EUROPE — Rau.     Harper  Bros.,  1876. 

6.  NORTH  AMERICANS  OF  ANTIQUITY — Short.     Harper  Bros.,  1880. 

7.  PREHISTORIC  AMERICA — Nadaillac.     Putnam's  Sons,  1884. 

8.  LAKE  DWELLINGS  OF  SWITZERLAND — Keller  &  Lee.     2  Vols.,  1878. 

9.  ORIGIN  OF  CIVILIZATION — Lubbock.     Appleton  &  Co.,  1889. 
10.  MAN'S  PLACE  IN  NATURE — Huxley.     Appleton  &  Co.,  1872. 
n.  PRIMITIVE  MAN  IN  OHIO — Moorehead.     Putnam's  Sons,  1892. 

12.  MAN  BEFORE  METALS — Joly.     Appleton  &  Co.,  1883. 

13.  THE  STORY  OF  PRIMITIVE  MAN — Clodd.     Appleton  &  Co.,   1895. 

14.  THE  DAWN  OF  HISTORY — Keary.     Scribner's  Sons,  1889. 

15.  ANTHROPOLOGY — Tylor.     Appleton  &  Co. ,  1891. 

1 6.  PREHISTORIC  ANTIQUITIES  OF  THE  ARYAN  PEOPLES — Schrader   &  Jevons.     Scribner  & 

Welford,  1890. 

17.  THE  STUDY  OF  MAN — Haddon.     Putnam's  Sons,  1898. 

1 8.  PRIMITIVE  FOLK — Reclus.     Scribner  &  Welford,  1891. 

19.  ETHNOLOGY — Keane.     Cambridge  Univ.  Press,  1896. 

20.  HISTORY  OF  MANKIND—  Hittell.     Vol.  I.     Holt  &  Co.,  1893. 

21.  EVOLUTION  OF  MAN — Haeckel.     2  vols.     Appleton  &  Co.,  1887. 

22.  ASCENT  OF  MAN — Drummond.     Pott  &  Co.,  1894. 

23.  WOMAN'S  SHARE  IN  PRIMITIVE  CULTURE — Mason.     Appleton  &  Co.,  1894. 

24.  ORIGIN  OF  INVENTIONS — Mason.     Scribner's  Sons,  1895. 

25.  THE  STORY  OF  AB — Waterloo.     Way  &  Williams,  1897. 

23 


CHAPTER  iv.— THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  INDIVIDUAL. 


"Man   can  only  become  human  through  education.     He  is  nothing  except  what  education   makes   of 
him." — Kant. 

"He  who  considers  mankind  good  does   not  understand  the  human  race.     He  is  naturally  brutal  and  only 
education  can  ennoble  him." — Frederick-the-Gteat. 


Whatever  theories  may  be  held  concerning  the  origin  and  progress,  or  origin  and  degen- 
eration of  the  human  race,  there  is  but  one  view  possible  concerning  the  individual.  Begin- 
ning with  a  single  cell  he  progresses  through  various  invertebrate  and  vertebrate  stages  that 
characterise  the  higher  mammals  and  before  birth,  appears  to  have  reached  what  may  be  re- 
garded as  the  human  plane.  An  attempt  to  explain  the  significance  of  these  various  stages  by 
the  greatest  living  biologist  will  be  found  in  Haeckel's  "The  L,ast  Link.''  In  the  interpreta- 
tion of  these  facts  of  pre-natal  development  there  must  be  brought  in  theory,  and  where  there 
are  theories  there  will  be  room  for  diverse  opinion.  The  scientific  interpretation  is  that,  ow- 
ing to  the  uniformity  of  Nature,  the  individual  must  be  created  in  the  same  general  manner 
that  the  race  itself  has  been  and  we  have  here  one  of  the  most  convincing,  as  well  as  most 
wonderful,  evidences  of  race  development.  Upon  any  theory  of  direct  creation  of  the  race 
this  pre-natal  development  of  the  individual  is  without  explanation  or  meaning. 

A.  Culture  Epoch  Theory.  The  adherents  of  Ziller's  theory  of  culture  epochs  main- 
tain that  the  development  of  the  child  does  not  cease  with  birth,  but  that,  so  far  as  the  mind  is 
concerned  it  has  only  well  begun.  The  "biogenetic  law,"  which  necessitates  that  every  indi- 
vidual shall  repeat  the  history  of  the  group  to  which  it  belongs,  operates  upon  the  child  during 
its  embryonic  life.  We  may  as  easily  believe  that  there  are  places  and  times  in  the  universe 
where  the  law  of  gravitation  is  suspended,  as  that  this  great  life  law  is  operative  upon  the  child 
up  to  a  certain  point  and  then  ceases.  Theoretically,  the  child  from  birth  must  repeat  the 
history  of  that  portion  of  the  human  family  to  which  it  belongs. 

It  might  be  argued  that  each  race  of  people  has  undergone  no  development,  that  they 
stand  to-day  practically  as  they  were  created.  If  this  were  true,  which  all  scientific  evidence 
contradicts,  then  the  infant  should  be,  physically,  morally  and  mentally,  an  adult,  in  miniature 
and  there  could  be  no  series  of  culture  epochs.  Anatomical  and  psychological  studies  of 
children  show  conclusively  that  they  differ  radically  from  adults.  It  might  be  argued  further, 
admitting  the  law  of  development,  that  race  development  has  been  of  such  a  nature  that  it 
could  leave  no  recognizable  impress  upon  the  child.  But  it  has  been  shown  in  the  preceding 
chapter  that  both  the  body  and  mind  of  primitive  man  differed  essentially  from  that  of  our 
civilized  man  of  to-day  and  those  who  are  investigating  the  truth  of  the  culture  epoch  theory 
have  a  right  to  call  for  the  direct  evidence  as  found  in  the  studies  of  childhood  and  early  adult 
life.  It  is  no  argument  against  the  theory,  in  general,  to  maintain  that  the  series  of  culture 
stages  given  in  the  preceding  chapter  may  have  been  passed  through  in  a  different  order  by 
certain  races,  or  that  certain  stages  were  entirely  omitted.  Still  less  does  it  matter  if  it  can  be 
shown  that  certain  groups  in  one  stage  reached  a  higher  plane  in  special  directions,  than  cer- 
tain other  groups  in  a  higher  stage  of  culture.  These  variations  in  the  rate  and  order  of  race 
development  should  affect,  theoretically,  only  the  descendants  of  those  races  having  such  ex- 
ceptional development.  They  will  be  exempt,  in  no  wise,  from  the  general  law  of  life  de- 
velopment, but  its  effect  will  differ  presumably  from  that  attained  in  the  case  of  races  that 
have  had  an  essentially  different  history. 

So  far  as  the  truth  of  the  theory  of  culture  epochs  is  concerned  it  matters  not  what  im- 
practical schemes  of  elementary  education  have  been,  or  are  being  founded  upon  it.  It  is  now 
desired  to  bring  together  in  concise  form  the  normal  characteristics  of  the  children  of  our 
civilized  races  and  to  show  that,  in  a  general  but  fundamental  manner,  they  appear  to  recapit- 

24 


lit  ate  otif  race  history;  pliysically,  intellectually,  morally  and  religiously.  If  this  parallel  de- 
velopment of  the  child  and  the  race  is  a.  fad  and  not  merely  a  series  of  remarkable  coincidences, 
then  the  law  of  culture  epochs  is  simply  a  part  of  the  more  comprehensive  law  of  organic  de- 
velopment from  which  the  child  is  not  and  should  not  be  exempt. 

B.  Infantile  Characteristics.  The  characteristics  possessed  by  every  healthy, 
normal  infant,  just  born  into  the  world,  are  hereditary  rather  than  acquired  during  his  em- 
bryonic life.  The  manner  in  which  he  reacts  against  the  hostile  environment  in  which  he 
now  finds  himself  is  determined  by  the  sum  total  of  these  hereditary  traits.  The  nature  of 
such  reaction  and  the  character  of  the  environment  will  determine  what  individual  character- 
istics will  be  acquired.  Of  the  hereditary  traits  with  which  the  infant  is  endowed  we  may 
recognize  two  groups;  the  mammalian  and  the  racial. 

1.  MAMMALIAN  CHARACTERISTICS.         Under  this  head  will  be  included   all  those  char- 
acteristics and  structures  which  the  child  possesses  in  common  with  the  higher  mammals   and 
which    he    would    have  regardless  of  what  had  been  the  history  of  the  race.     Here  will  be  in- 
cluded the  general  anatomical  and  histologicai   details   of   his  body  and  the  physiology  of  his 
various  organs.     In  common  with  other  mammals  in  their  infancy  the  child  is  of  small  size, 
physically  weak,  lacking  in  control  and  endurance,  with  poorly  developed  senses,  a  cartilagi- 
nous skeleton,  low  specific  gravity,  and  a  relatively  large  head.     Without  teeth  that  have  cut 
the  gum,  he  acquires  a  temporary  and  later  a  permanent  set.    In  common  with  other  mammals 
at  this  stage  his  natural  food  is  milk.     His  respiration  and  pulse  are  more  rapid  than  they  will 
be  in  later  life  and  his  bodily  temperature  is  higher.     He  is  active  and  restless,  tires    easily, 
sleeps  much  and  recuperates  readily.     The  securing   of  exercise  for  his   muscles  and  the  peri- 
odic gratification  of  the  hunger  appetite  chiefly  concern  the  infant  during  his  waking  moments. 

2.  RACIAL  CHARACTERISTICS.     In  conjunction  with  the  above  set  of  purely  mammalian 
characteristics  the  child  possesses  still  others  for  which  a  separate  explanation  or  series  of  ex- 
planations is  required.     They  are  characteristics  that  distinguish  him  radically  from  what  he 
will  be  when  an  adult  and  are  "greater  than  the  differences  between  some  species  of  animals." 
So  far  as  we  may  judge,  most  of  these  characteristics  are  entirely  useless  to  the  infant  himself 
and  hence  cannot  be  explained  upon  the  ground  of  utility.     They  are  to  be  satisfactorily  ac- 
counted for  only  by  assuming  that  the  child  is  repeating  physically  and  mentally  that  early 
stage  of  race  history  when  the  trees  were  the  natural  dwelling  places.     It  is  the   conviction  of 
the  writer  that  the  stage  here  indicated  in  the  life  of  the  child  is  not  the  pre-human  brute  stage, 
as  generally  assumed  b}r  authors,  but  the    first   stage  of  hitman  culture.     The  tout  ensemble  of 
infantile  characteristics  is  human  rather  than  simian.    They  are  of  interest  to  the  primary 
teacher  only  in  that  they  reveal  the  working  of  the  biogeuetic  law  and  explain  certain  traits  of 
character  that  persist  until  later  life. 

Compared  with  the  length  of  the  body  the  arms  of  the  infant  are  relatively  long  and  his 
legs  short  and  bent.     Almost  from  birth    he   can  support  his  weight  by  his  hands,  this  power 
reaching  a  maximum  at  about  three  weeks  of  age,  when  infants  are  able  to  cling  for  from  two 
to  three  minutes.     In  grasping  objects  in  the  hands  the  thumb  is  not  apposed  to  the  fingers  as 
is  done  later.     The  ankles  naturally  permit  the  incurving  of  the  soles  of  the  feet,  the  great 
toe  stands  at  an  angle  from  the  others,  all  may  be  separated  more  or  less  and  curved  so  as  to 
permit  the  grasping  of  small  objects.     Upon  the  sole  may  be  distinctly  traced  the  markings 
which  suggest  the  prehensile  character  of  the  foot.     When    the   child   is   able   to  support  its 
/eight   upon  its  feet,  it  stands  more  upon  the  outer  margins  of  its  feet  and  very  readily  be- 
)tnes  bow-legged.     Its  pelvic  bones  are  narrower  and  longer  and  the  spinal  column  lacks  the 
louble  curvature.     The  forehead  is  low  and  retreating,  the  nose  flat,  the  nostrils  capacious 
md  the  lower  jaw  projects  forward.     The  shape  of  the  eye-ball  is  that  of  a  far-sighted  eye  and 
War ophyll green  is  the  most  restful  and  natural  color  to  which  the  eye   can  be  subjected,      Be- 
fore  birth,    and    generally    for   a  few  days  afterward,  the  entire  body  is  covered  with  a  thick 
growth  of  hair.     The  child  often  displays  dislike  for  and  resentment  against  artificial  clothing. 
[is  methods   of  assault    and  defense   are  striking,  scratching,  pulling  hair  and  biting,  using 
irst  only  his  natural  weapons.     When    able    to  move  about  his  method  of  locomotion  is  upon 
"all  fours;"  not  yet  having  learned  to  balance  himself  upon  his  feet.     He   shows   a    fondness 
">r  climbing  up  stairs,  loves  to  be  lifted  aloft  but  displays  instinctive  fear  of  falling.     For  the 
lilk  there  is  gradually  substituted  a  vegetable  diet,  to  which  meat  will  later  be  added. 

25 


The  child  loves  noise  and  rhythm,  especially  of  his  own  making,  and  his  first  musical  in- 
struments are  a  rattle,  or  something  with  which  to  pound.  Later  come  the  drum  and  the 
horn.  His  chief  interest  is  in  things  which  move  and  appear  to  be  alive.  He  loves  to  be 
carried,  swayed  in  the  arms  and  rocked.  The  cries  and  gurglings  of  babyhood  are  made 
mainly  with  the  vowels  a,  u  and  o,  to  which  are  very  soon  joined  the  consonants  m  and  p. 
The  first  elements  of  speech  are  probably  of  the  nature  of  interjections,  followed  or  accom- 
panied by  nouns.  His  system  of  naming  objects  consists  in  substituting  for  the  object  itself 
his  imitation  of  the  sound  which  it  makes.  He  cares  but  little  for  the  companionship  of 
children  of  his  own  age,  until  after  he  is  able  to  walk  or  run,  when  the  gregarious  instinct 
shows  itself.  He  is  selfish,  passionate  and  shows  but  little  regard  for  the  rights  of  others.  In 
general,  infants  are  afraid  of  strangers,  and  those  things  which  suggest  the  presence  of  wild 
animals;  such  as  gruff  noises,  large  eyes,  a  display  of  teeth  and  the  feeling  of  fur.  High  wind, 
thunder,  darkness  and  water  arouse  instinctive  fear  in  the  minds  of  many  infants.  The  child 
shows  especial  delight  in  striking  objects  with  a  stick  held  in  the  hands.  It  will  prove  a  good 
exercise  for  the  student  to  account  for  this  group  of  characteristics  without  making  use  of  the 
biogenetic  law  and  then  to  interpret  each  particular  trait  in  the  light  of  this  law. 

C.  Child  of  School  Age.  Judging  from  the  powerful  impress  left  upon  the  physical 
structure  and  organism  of  the  child  the  arboreal  stage  of  the  race  was  probably  of  great  dura- 
tion. Without  attempting  to  draw  any  sharp  lines  of  division  it  seems  that  the  stage  at  which 
the  child  learns  to  walk,  marks,  in  a  general  way,  the  close  of  the  arboreal  stage  in  his  indi- 
vidual development  and  the  beginning  of  that  stage  during  which  the  race  was  able  to  main- 
tain its  foothold  upon  the  surface  of  the  earth.  With  the  assumption  of  the  erect  position, 
changes  in  the  muscles,  bones,  shape  and  relative  size  of  the  various  parts  of  the  body  at  once 
begin,  which  are  similar  to  those  which  occurred  in  the  case  of  the  race  itself.  The  arms  and 
hands  no  longer  needed  for  purposes  of  locomotion  are  now  free  for  the  prehension  of  every 
available  object.  This  freedom  of  the  hands  and  the  ability  to  walk  gives  the  child  a  wide 
range  of  new  experiences,  leading  to  a  growing  fund  of  new  ideas.  The  desire  to  express 
these  ideas  furnishes  the  stimulus  required  for  the  acquisition  of  articulate  speech.  The  child 
now  seeks  the  companionship  of  other  children  of  his  own  age  and  becomes  a  gregarious  and 
social  creature.  Co-operation  in  games  makes  still  further  demands  upon  children's  powers  of 
expression  and  speech  is  supplemented  with  pantomime  and  gesture.  If  the  environment  is 
favorable  the  muscles  and  senses,  with  their  corresponding  brain  centers,  are  receiving  exercise 
and  development.  These  characteristics  are  more  and  more  intensified,  without  marked  break, 
and  indicate  the  hunting  and  fishing  stage  of  the  race.  It  is  this  miniature  warrior  that  with 
more  or  less  reluctance  and  trepidation  knocks  at  the  door  of  our  public  school.  Teachers, 
what  shall  we  do  with  him? 

i.  PHYSIC AI,  CHARACTERISTICS.  All  of  the  infantile  physical  characteristics  enumerated 
in  the  preceding  section  are  retained  by  the  child  of  five  to  seven  years  of  age,  although  Nature 
has  begun  to  eliminate  them.  His  bones  are  still  relatively  soft  and  plastic  and  easily  deformed 
by  improper  school  desks  and  unnatural  positions.  Lacking  in  control  and  co-ordination,  he 
executes  the  more  delicate  movements  only  with  difficulty.  His  drawing  and  whatever  writing 
is  demanded  of  him  in  these  early  years  should  be  capable  of  being  done  mainly  with  arm 
movements.  The  child  is  very  active  and  restless,  demands  frequent  change  of  position  and 
occupation,  breathes  rapidly,  has  a  rapid  pulse  and  for  his  complete  development  requires  the 
maximum  amount  of  out-door  life,  pure  air  and  sunshine.  To  shut  him  up  in  the  typical 
modern  school-room,  with  its  poor  seats,  bad  lighting,  unevenly  distributed  heat,  foul  air  and 
unnatural  restraint  is  doing  violence  to  his  physical  nature  from  which  he  can  never  fully 
recover.  With  his  sense  and  motor  centers  developing  and  demanding  exercise  \\&  yearns  for 
the  fields  and  forests,  how  strongly  only  those  can  understand  whose  memories  carry  them 
back  to  childhood.  And  here,  let  no  one  imagine  that  Nature  has  made  a  mistake  in  thus 
implanting  this  inordinate  desire  in  the  breasts  of  children;  she  is  endeavoring  to  save  those 
that  are  worthy.  The  ideal  school-room  is  that  which  lies  outside  of  the  brick  walls  and  the 
portion  inside  should  be  used  largely  as  a  retreat  and  shelter.  For  the  younger  children  of 
school  age,  say  from  six  to  nine,  the  teacher  should  be  field-assistant,  guide  and  chaperon. 
She  should  perfectly  understand  and  sympathize  with  children,  should  equally  well  under- 
stand the  hunting  and  fishing  people  the  world  over,  should  have  a  full  and  intimate  know- 
ledge of  her  immediate  environment.  To  attend  such  a  school  children  would  run  away  from 
home  instead  of  away  from  school. 

26 


Nowhere  else  is  the  law  of  child  development  shown  mote  strikingly  than  in  the  play  of 
children.  To  the  adult  this  impulse  to  play  seems  almost  insane  in  the  hold  that  it  has  upott 
the  child;  but  here  again  Nature  is  not  in  error.  We  wonder  at  the  persistence  with  which 
children  play  and  we  may  well  consider  their  types  of  activity.  As  has  been  well  Isaid,  all 
good  play  has  in  it  the  elements  of  work  and  all  good  work  should  have  in  it  the  elements  of 
play.  Is  it  then  possible  to  distinguish  between  work  and  play?  By  some  play  is  regarded 
as  simply  pleasurable  activity.  But  fortunately  for  most  of  us  genuine  work  is  often  pleasur- 
able and  it  occasionally  happens  that  genuine  play  becomes  far  from  pleasant.  By  others  play 
is  defined  as  a  pleasurable,  purposeless  form  of  activity,  and  this  applies  to  most  play.  In  cer- 
tain cases,  however,  children  indulge  in  forms  of  play  for  the  express  purpose  of  acquiring 
skill,  as  in  jumping,  running,  throwing,  etc.  It  does  not  meet  this  objection  to  say  that  the 
purpose  must  be  a  useless  one,  since  this  form  of  skill  acquired  may  even  be  the  means  of  saving 
the  individual's  life.  Play  may  be  defined  as  the  purely  voluntary  expenditure  of  energy. 
There  is  no  impelling  force,  other  than  what  may  be  called  the  "play  impulse"  itself.  The 
distinction  between  play  and  work  rests  upon  the  mental  attitude  of  the^child  towards  the 
activity,  one  may  change  to  the  other  instantly  and  in  the  same  game  one  child  may  be  play- 
ing while  another  is  working.  The  impelling  force  that  changes  the  activity  to  the  form  of 
work  may  come  from  without,  or  may  arise  from  within  the  mind  of  the  child  as  a  sense  of 
duty,  pride,  loyalty,  ambition,  etc.  When  a  hungry  child  is  eating  his  dinner  he  is  not  play- 
ing, however  pleasurable  may  be  the  exercise.  When,  as  his  young  sister's  guest  of  honor, 
in  one  corner  of  the  sand-pile  or  in  the  shade  of  the  old  apple  tree,  he  obligingly  nibbles  a 
cooky  or  sips  imaginary  tea,  he  is  playing.  Psychologically  there  is  no  distinction  to  be  made 
between  play  and  the  recreation  of  the  adult. 

It  remains  to  consider  why  children  the  world  over  possess  this  intense  play  impulse  and 
why  they  play  as  they  do.  The  theory  suggested  by  Schiller  and  later  elaborated  by  Spencer  is 
that  they  are  working  off,  by  this  means,  their  superfluous  energy.  That  this  theory  can  not 
completely  explain  the  play  of  children  is  at  once  shown  by  the  fact  that  they  often  continue 
to  play  long  after  the  siiperfluons  energy  is  exhausted.  Furthermore,  many  forms  of  work 
would  be  equally  serviceable  in  enabling  them  to  dissipate  energy.  A  second  theory  advocated 
by  Lazarus  and  Gutsmuths  is  that  children  play  for  purposes  of  relaxation  and  recreation. 
There  is  no  question  but  that  when  children  are  kept  quiet  for  an  hour  or  more  in  the  school- 
room the  desire  to  play  is  intensified,  but  that  the  theory  can  not  completely  explain  the  play 
of  children  is  at  once  shown  by  the  fact  that  children  are  ready  to  play  from  the  time  that  they 
open  their  eyes  in  the  morning  until  forced  to  close  them  again  at  night.  Furthermore,  it  is 
known  that  a  change  of  work  can  furnish  relaxation.  These  two  attempts  to  explain  physio- 
logically the  phenomena  of  play  are  plainly  incomplete  in  what  they  attempt  to  explain  and 
do  not  account  at  all  for  the  forms  of  activity  seen  in  natural  play. 

A  theory  which  not  only  explains  fully  and  completely  the  play  of  children,  but  that  of 
young  animals  as  well,  is  found  in  Groos'  biological  theory,  based  upon  the  theory  of  culture 
epochs.  The  child  is  in  that  stage  of  development  which  represents  the  hunting  stage  of  the 
race,  when  the  most  varied  activity  of  muscles  and  senses  was  demanded.  The  motor  and 
sense  centers  in  the  child's  brain  are  now  ready  to  be  developed  and  are  demanding  exercise. 
The  forms  of  activity  required,  in  order  that  the  individual  brain  may  be  developed  as  was  the 
race  brain,  must  correspond  with  the  primitive  activities.  In  operating  upon  the  child  the 
biogenetic  law  implants  in  him  an  instinctive  impulse  to  use  his  muscles  and  senses  and  to  use 
them  in  a  certain  way.  The  resulting  activity  we  call  play.  This  impulse  is  as  powerful  as 
it  is  because  of  its  great  importance  to  the  child  and  a  generous  proportion  of  his  life  is  set 
apart  by  Nature  for  its  operation.  If  we  watch  a  group  of  boys  engaged  in  plays  of  their  own 
devising  we  will  at  once  discover  what  the  primitive  activities  really  were; — running,  jumping, 
dodging,  whirling,  striking,  kicking,  wrestling,  boxing,  hiding,  climbing,  digging,  swimming, 
throwing,  yelling,  etc.  The  average  boy  can  think  of  no  higher  paradise  than  a  complete 
camp,  located  alongside  a  beautiful  sheet  of  water,  with  a  full  equipment  for  hunting,  fishing 
and  boating.  In  the  case  of  the  girls  at  play  some  of  the  rougher  elements  are  eliminated  and 
for  these  are  substituted  certain  phases  of  the  domestic  arts,  including  the  care  of  dolls.  In 
their  romping  games  the  girls  just  as  they  are  caught  instinctively  scream,  in  striking  contrast 
with  boys,  which  may  be  explained  by  assuming  that  in  primitive  times  the  women  habitually 

Elled  for  help  in  times  of  danger,  while  the  men  reserved  their  strength  for  the  encounter, 
we  could  get  a  composite  scream  from  the  girls  of  all  nations  of  the  earth  it  would  probably 
ry  closely  represent  the  original  female  cry  for  help. 

27 


With  imitation  and  imagination  Strongly  developed  in  the  child  placed  in  a  civilized 
environment  the  play  impulse  will  be  directed  into  new  channels  and  instead  of  prancing  down 
the  road  as  a  wild  horse,  or  clawing  the  air  like  a  bear,  you  may  see  him  puffing  like  an  auto 
or  locomotive.  Those  artificial  games  that  are  devised  by  adults,  and  taught  children  must 
have  in  prominent  sight  the  above  natural  elements  of  play  in  order  to  ever  become  popular 
with  children.  Analyze  the  games  of  base-ball  and  foot-ball  in  order  to  discover  the  various 
types  of  activity  represented.  In  primitive  society  the  children  played  essentially  as  they  do 
to-day  and  acquired  skill  in  doing  those  things  which  enabled  them  to  survive  as  adults.  We 
have  out-grown,  in  large  part,  the  necessity  for  these  special  activities  in  later  life  and  still 
the  ability  to  run,  jump  or  swim  not  infrequently  enables  the  individual  to  save  his  life. 
Aside  from  the  practical  value  of  the  skill  acquired  in  play,  the  activities  demanded  by- 
Nature  develop  muscles  and  senses  and  the  corresponding  brain  centers  and  mental  powers. 
This  is  why  "all  work  and  no  play  makes  Jack  a  dull  boy."  Furthermore,  if  the  play  impulse 
is  fully  satisfied  there  is  much  less  likelihood  of  fighting  amongst  the  boys.  The  wise  teacher 
will  do  all  she  can  to  encourage  and  supervise  the  play  of  children  entrusted  to  her  care. 

2.  INTELLECTUAL  AND  ETHICAL  CHARACTERISTICS.  Under  this  head  we  may  group  a 
series  of  characteristics  which  relate  the  child  to  primitive  man  and  distinguish  him  from  our 
ideal  civilized  adult.  The  average  child  is  jealous,  selfish  and  inconsiderate  of  the  feelings  of 
others.  He  is  heartless  and  often  cruel,  delighting  in  stories  of  adventure,  fighting  and  blood- 
shed. He  loves  to  tease  and  annoy  helpless  animals  and  his  weaker  fellows,  which  is  simply 
a  mild  form  of  torture.  He  has  a  feeling  of  hostility  toward  all  strange  boys,  is  clannish  and 
quarrelsome.  Because  of  his  vivid  imagination,  his  unreliable  senses,  or  his  willingness  to 
deceive,  the  statements  of  children  are  often  untrue.  Judged  from  adult,  civilized  standards, 
his  ideas  of  right  and  wrong  are  very  vague,  as  is  also  his  sense  of  modesty.  Property  rights 
are  not  fully  understood  or  respected,  might  often  making  right.  Many  teachers  and  parents 
believe  that  these  low  traits,  which  they  cannot  help  but  recognize  in  their  children,  have  been 
caught  from  other  children,  just  as  they  might  catch  the  measles.  The  purpose  of  this  dis- 
cussion is  to  show  that  they  are  perfectly  natural  and  to  be  expected  in  every  healthy  boy, 
less  pronounced  in  the  case  of  the  girls,  and  not  due  to  acquired  viciousness.  Sympathy  ! 
sympathy  !  is  what  the  dear  little  rascals  need.  To  know  how  to  handle  them  most  wisely 
requires  divine  help. 

Because  of  the  developing  sense  centers  in  the  brain  the  senses  are  particularly  active  and 
the  child  desires  to  see,  feel,  taste,  smell  and  hear.  He  lives  largely  in  the  present,  is  natur- 
ally improvident  and  lacking  in  thrift.  Not  having  yet  become  strongly  attached  to  any  single 
locality  he  is  nomadic  and,  if  he  could  carry  with  him  his  parents,  friends  and  pets,  he  would 
like  to  be  almost  continually  upon  the  move.  A  house  upon  wheels,  or  a  private  car  or  yacht 
would  be  ideal.  He  is  lacking  in  power  of  mental  concentration,  is  not  methodical,  reasons 
superficially,  is  easily  deceived,  and  has  but  a  weak  grasp  of  numbers.  He  is  by  nature  un- 
tidy and  lacks  in  fastidiousness,  is  not  seriously  distressed  by  the  usual  condition  of  his 
hands,  face,  hair  and  clothes.  He  is  not  overly  choice  in  regard  to  the  things  with  which  he 
periodically  fills  his  stomach.  He  makes  much  use  of  gesture  and  loves  pantomime  as  a  form 
of  expression;  delights  in  wild,  weird  calls  and  cries.  Imagination  and  associative  memory  are 
strongly  developed  in  children  and  they  have  a  passion  for  imitating  the  activities  of  animals  and 
grown-ups.  Children  are  surpisingly  confident  of  their  powers  and  are  often  boastful.  When 
a  little  older  they  develop,  especially  the  boys,  a  type  of  stoicism,  which  enables  them  to  take 
a  thrashing  without  any  show  of  pain.  Owing  partly  to  their  innate  curiosity  and  partly  to 
their  instinct  to  kill,  children  are  naturally  destructive  of  plants,  animals,  toys  and  property. 
Stories  of  the  fiercer  animal  life,  of  war  and  the  chase,  of  primitive  adventure,  appeal  most 
strongly  to  them.  The  child  is  passionately  fond  of  play  ;  i.  e. — the  voluntary  expenditure  of 
energy, — but  just  as  thoroughly  detests  work.  He  loves  Nature  rather  than  art,  the  real  thing 
rather  than  any  representation  of  the  thing.  He  loves  strong  perfumes  and  brilliant  colors, 
having  no  appreciation  of  the  harmony  of  shades  of  color.  Most  children  prefer  red  and  have 
a  positive  distaste  for  black.  Their  fondness  for  color  may  be  transferred  to  the  object  pos- 
sessing it.  A  teacher  informed  the  writer  that  the  children  are  much  more  tractable  when 
she  wears  a  dress  that  they  like.  Musically  the  child  has  not  advanced  much  from  infancy, 
still  loving  rhythm,  rather  than  melody,  or  harmony.  However,  it  now  requires  more  noise 
and  rhythm  to  satisfy  him.  The  music  that  takes  the  firmest  hold  upon  the  child  is  of  the 
minor  character. 

28 


in  his  drawings  the  child  also  comes  close  to  primitive  man  and  the  modern  savage.  Be- 
cause of  equal  powers  of  representation  and  interpretation  the  drawings  of  the  two  are  very 
similar,  appearing  as  grotesque  caricatures.  This  arises  from  the  fact  that  with  each  drawing 
is  not  art  but  o.form  of  expression,  the  simplest  and  most  natural  form  of  written  language. 
The  child  draws  what  is  in  his  mind,  rather  than  what  he  sees  before  him,  and  he  introduces 
into  his  drawings  only  that  which  he,  at  the  moment,  regards  as  most  essential.  He  shows  a 
preference  for  animals  and  the  human  subject,  in  action,  giving  a  side  view  of  the  animal  and 
a.  front  view  of  man.  In  drawing  an  animal  the  child  begins  with  the  head,  adds  the  body  and 
then  the  legs  to  support  both,  this  appearing  to  him  the  order  of  their  importance.  In  draw- 
ing a  man  the  head  is  generally  drawn  first,  as  the  most  important  part  of  his  anatomy,  the 
eyes  and  mouth  usually  inserted  next,  and  a  pair  of  stiff  legs  to  support  the  head.  If  arms 
are  added  they  at  first  branch  from  the  head,  the  body  not  being  recognized  in  man  as  of  any 
importance.  The  relative  size  of  the  various  parts,  or  of  neighboring  objects,  gives  a  clue  as 
to  their  importance  in  the  mind  of  the  child.  In  these  drawings  there  is  thus  mirrored,  for 
the  moment,  the  contents  of  the  child's  mind  and  this  form  of  expression  becomes  for  the 
teacher  a  most  valuable  auxiliary,  in  case  she  is  wise  enough  to  utilize  it.  A  very  complete 
series  of  children's  drawings  was  made  the  subject  of  study  by  Earl  Barnes  some  years  ago. 
The  children  of  various  grades  were  given  paper  and  pencil  and  then  were  read  the  story  of 
"  Johnny  Look-in-the-Air.  "  They  were  then  asked  to  illustrate  one  or  more  episodes  of  the 
story  and  the  poem  was  read  to  them  a  second  time.  Papers  were  received  from  6393  children, 
mostly  in  California,  from  which  some  interesting  generalizations  were  made  (see  The  Peda- 
gogical Seminary,  Vol.  2,  p.  455).  In  order  that  teachers  may  secure  similar  data  for  com- 
parison the  poem  is  here  reproduced,  as  translated  from  the  German. 

STORY  OP  JOHNNY  I<OOK-IN-THE-AIR. 


As  he  trudged  along  to  school, 

It  was  always  Johnny's  rule 
To  be  looking  at  the  sky 

And  the  clouds  that  floated  by; 
But  what  just  before  him  lay, 

In  his  way, 
Johnny  never  thought  about; 

So  that  everyone  cried  out — 
'  'Look  at  little  Johnny  there, 

Little  Johnny  Look-in-the-Air. " 
Running  just  in  Johnny's  way, 

Came  a  little  dog  one  day; 
Johnny's  eyes  were  still  astray 

Up  on  high  in  the  sky; 
And  he  never  heard  them  cry — 

"Johnny,  mind,  the  dog  is  nigh  !" 
What  happens  now  ? 

Bump  !     Dump ! 
Down  they  fell  with  such  a  thump, 

Dog  and  Johnny  in  a  lump  ! 
They  almost  broke  their  bones 

So  hard  they  tumbled  on  the  stones. 
Once  with  head  as  high  as  ever, 

Johnny  walked  beside  a  river. 
Johnny  watched  the  swallows  trying 

Which  was  cleverest  at  flying. 
Oh  !     What  fun  ! 

Johnny  watched  the  bright,  round  sun 
Going  in  and  coming  out; 

This  was  all  he  thought  about. 
So  he  strode  on,  only  think  ! 

To  the  river's  very  brink. 


Where  the  bank  was  high  and  steep, 

And  the  water  very  deep; 
And  the  fishes  in  a  row, 

Stared  to  see  him  coming  so. 
One  step  more  !     Oh  !  sad  to  tell ! 

Headlong  in  poor  Johnny  fell. 
The  three  little  fishes  in  dismay, 

Wagg'd  their  heads  and  swam  away. 
There  lay  Johnny  on  his  face, 

With  his  nice  red  writing-case; 
But,  as  they  were  passing  by, 

Two  strong  men  had  heard  him  cry  ; 
And  with  sticks  these  two  strong  men 

Hook'd  poor  Johnny  out  again. 
Oh  !  you  should  have  seen  him  shiver 

When  they  pulled  him  from  the  river. 
He  was  in  a  sorry  plight, 

Dripping  wet  and  such  a  fright ! 
Wet  all  over,  everywhere, 

Clothes  and  arms  and  face  and  hair; 
Johnny  never  will  forget 

What  it  is  to  be  so  wet. 
And  the  fishes,  one,  two,  three, 

Are  coming  back  again  you  see; 
Up  they  came  the  moment  after, 

To  enjoy  the  fun  and  laughter. 
Each  popped  out  his  little  head, 

And  to  tease  poor  Johnny,  said, 
"Silly  little  Johnny,  look, 

You  have  lost  your  writing-book  !  " 
Look  at  them  laughing,  and  do  you  see 

His  writing-book  drifting  far  to  sea." 


In  using  the  above  with  a  single  child,  or  a  grade  of  children,  record  the  name,  date,  resi- 
dence and  age  and  have  the  story  retold  by  picture  method  in  order  to  get  an  idea  of  primitive 
expression.  Doubtful  portions  should  be  explained  while  the  matter  is  fresh  in  the  mind  of 
the  child. 

3.  EMOTIONAL  AND  SUB-RKUGIOUS  CHARACTERISTICS.  The  child  is  dominated  very 
largely  by  his  feelings  and  is  naturally  impulsive  and  passionate.  His  moods  are  rapidly 


changed  and  he  is  easily  diverted,  from  one  extreme  to  another.  With  him  the  'fount  of  joy 
lies  very  near  the  lake  of  tears. '  As  has  been  pointed  out  the  child  is  hopeful  and  confident, 
but  still  subject  to  vague  and  unreasonable  fears.  He  has  a  great  admiration  tor  physical  skill 
or  power  and  but  little  appreciation  of  intellectual  strength.  His  classic  heroes  are  David, 
Ulysses,  Siegfried  and  Arthur,  rather  than  Socrates,  Plato  or  Aristotle.  The  Diety  he  pictures 
as  a  giant.  He  assigns  a  personality  to  inanimate  things.  Objects  that  bring  to  him  pain 
must  be  scolded  or  punished,  as  a  stone  over  which  he  falls.  The  doll  is  often  alive  to  the 
imagination  of  the  little  girl,  and  never  in  after  life  will  sorrow  be  any  more  real  than  when 
her  savage  brother  crushes  its  head.  The  child  readily  and  gladly  believes  in  the  supernatural, 
is  superstitious  and  a  fetish-worshiper.  His  world  is  peopled  with  brownies,  fairies  and 
goblins.  He  believes  in  luck  and  chance.  All  those  who  have  lived  for  any  length  of  time 
with  savage  peoples  have  been  impressed  with  the  similarity  between  them  and  children. 

D.  Persistent  Savage  Traits.  From  this  low  stage  of  culture,  as  a  result  of  heredity 
and  through  the  operation  of  the  home,  school,  church,  state  and  society,  the  individual  passes 
to  a  higher  plane  of  culture  and  gradually  attains  those  physical,  emotional,  intellectual,  ethical 
and  religious  traits  that  characterize  the  civilized  adult.  Eliminate  the  influence  of  the  above 
social  institutions  and  the  individual  makes  but  little  progress.  In  spite  of  their  influence 
every  person  retains  many  reminiscences  of  the  primitive  life  of  tree-climbing  and  hunting  man, 
suggesting  that  only  a  relatively  short  time  has  elapsed  since  civilized  man  attained  the  higher 
plane  of  culture  and  explaining  why  some  individuals  have  succeeded  in  acquiring  only  such  a 
very  thin  veneering, 

1.  TREE-CUMBING  ATAVISMS.     Amongst  civilized  adults  are  still  found,  more  or  less 
frequently,  peculiarities  of  the  skeleton  which  were  characteristic  of  climbing  man.    The  stand- 
ing position,  as  Drummond  points  out,  is  difficult  for  man  to  retain  for  any  considerable  length 
of  time.     The  sneer  seems  to  be  what  remains  of  early  man's  display  of  his  formidable  canine 
teeth.     When  our  eyes  become  weakened,  or  diseased,  green   bandages,  eye  shades  and  lamp 
shades  are  prescribed.     Many   adults   show   a  fondness  for  swings,  hammocks,  and  rocking- 
chairs.     Two  of  the  most  deep-seated  fears  with  civilized  man  are  the  fear  of   falling   from   a 
height  and  the  fear  of  snakes.     Many  people  are  instinctively  and  unreasonably  afraid  of  the 
dark,  thunder  and  lightning  and  high  wind. 

2.  HUNTING  AND  FISHING  ATAVISMS.     The  love  for  hunting  and  fishing  has  still  a  deep 
hold  upon  many,  in  which  the  instinct  to  kill  has  not  been  replaced  with  a  love  and  sympathy 
for  animal  life.     This  instinct  is  partially  satisfied  by  shooting  at   a  target  or  "clay  pigeons." 
The  gathering  of  nuts  and  wild  berries  from  the  fields  and  forests  furnishes  a  tamer  and  milder 
pleasure  that  one  does  not  get  when  ordered  from  the  grocer.     Fortunately  but  few  have  lost 
the  charm  of  the  woods,  fields,  streams,    lakes  and  mountains.     The  nomadic  instinct  is  still 
strong  in  many  and  they  constitute  our  "globe-trotters."     Very  few  people  there  are  who  are 
not  affected  more  or  less  by  absurd  superstitions.     The  readiness  with  which  a  mob  will  drop 
back  into  savagery  and  indulge   in   the  most   revolting  cruelty  to  their  fellow-man  furnishes 
evidence  of  the  thinness  of  the  veneering  that  we  call  civilization.     There  is  no  crime  that  man 
or  woman  commits  against  society  that  may  not  be  looked  upon   as  a  form  of  savage  atavism. 
The  most  satisfactory  theory   of  the  criminal   is   that   he  is   an  individual  who  insists  upon 
practicing  to-day  the  code  of  ethics  that  was  developed   and   recognized   when  the  race  was  in 
its  youth. 

The  instinctive  clenching  of  the  fist  in  anger,  the  setting  of  the  jaws,  the  stamping  of  the 
foot  and  the  rapid  heart  beat,  even  when  the  cause  of  anger  is  not  present,  are  readily  under- 
stood. The  interest  which  so  many  of  the  lower  and  middle  classes  manifest  in  personal 
encounters,  prize-fights,  wrestling-matches,  and  the  corresponding  contests  of  animals,  are 
simply  so  much  savage  atavism  left  in  their  natures,  The  throwing  of  a  hammer  to  the 
ground,  with  which  one  has  struck  his  finger,  is  an  ineffectual  attempt  to  punish  an  inanimate 
object.  The  kicking  of  loose  objects  upon  the  walk,  the  carrying  of  a  cane,  various  sleeping 
postures,  the  fondness  for  rhythm  in  music  and  poetry,  the  use  of  gesture,  the  taste  for  gaudy 
color  and  powerful  perfumes,  are  all  explainable  upon  the  theory  that  every  individual  must 
recapitulate  the  race  history.  For  the  great  majority  of  people  a  camp-fire  at  night  has  a 
strange,  undefinable  attraction,  which  is  less  in  the  case  of  the  old  fire-place  and  grate,  but 
still  recognizable.  As  you  watch  the  weird  tongues  of  flame  licking  the  embers,  if  you  shut 
out  all  other  sounds  and  listen  intently  you  may  hear  reverberating  through  the  misty  cor- 
'  lors  of  memory  the  "Call  of  the  wild." 

30 


REFERENCE  tist. 

t.  ^HE  CHILD,  A  STUDY  IN  THE'EVOLUTION  OF  MAN — Chamberlain.    Scribner'sSous,  1906. 

2.  THE  FIRST  THREE  YEARS  OF  CHILDHOOD — Perez  and  Christie.-     Marquis  &  Co.,   1885. 

3.  CHILDREN'S  WAYS — Sully.     Appleton  &  Co.,  1897. 

4.  STUDIES  OF  CHILDHOOD — Sully.     Appleton  &  Co.,  1896. 

5.  THE  STUDY  OF  THE  CHILD — Taylor.     Appleton  &  Co.,   1899. 

6.  THE  SENSES  AND  THE  WILL — Preyer  and  Brown.     Appleton  &  Co.,  1888. 

7.  THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  INTELLECT — Preyer  and  Brown.     Appleton  &  Co. ,   1889. 

8.  THE  STUDY  OF  CHILDREN — Warner.     Macmillan  &  Co.,  1898. 

9.  THE  PHYSICAL  NATURE  OF  THE  CHILD — Rowe.     Macmillan  &  Co.,  1899. 

10.  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  CHILD  DEVELOPMENT — King.     Univ.  of  Chic.  Press,  1903. 

11.  INTELLECTUAL  AND  MORAL  DEVELOPMENT  OF  CHILDREN — Compayre  and  Wilson.     Ap- 

pleton &  Co.,  1896. 

12.  LATER  INFANCY  OF  CHILD — Compayre  and  Wilson.     Appleton  &  Co.,  1902. 

13.  THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  CHILD — Oppenheim.     Macmillan  &  Co.,  1898. 

14.  THE  PLAY  OF  MAN — Groos  and  Baldwin.     Appleton  &  Co.,  1901. 

15.  THE  CHILD  AND  CHILDHOOD  IN  FOLK-THOUGHT — Chamberlain.     Macmillan  &  Co. ,  1896. 

16.  THE  STUDY  OF  A  CHILD — Hogan.     Harper  &  Bros.,  1898. 

17.  THE  BIOGRAPHY  OF  A  BABY — Shinn.     Houghton,   Mifflin  &  Co.,  1900. 

1 8.  THE  GROWTH  OF  THE  BRAIN — Donaldson.     Scribner's  Sons,  1895. 

19.  THE  STUDY  OF  CHILD  NATURE — Harrison.     Chicago  Kindergarten  College,  1894. 

20.  KINDERGARTEN  AND  CHILD  CULTURE — Barnard.     Amer.  Jour.  Education,  1881. 

21.  MENTAL  DEVELOPMENT  IN  THE  CHILD  AND  THE  RACE — Baldwin.     Macmillan   &  Co., 

1895- 

22.  THE  NERVOUS  SYSTEM  OF  THE  CHILD — Warner.     Macmillan  &  Co.,  1900. 

23.  THE  STUDY  OF  CHILDREN — Warner.     Macmillan  &  Co.,  1898. 

24.  A  STUDY  OF  FEARS — Hall.     Amer.  Jour,  of  Psychology,  Vol.  VIII,  p.  147. 

25.  BIBLIOGRAPHY  OF  CHILD  STUDY — Wilson.     Clark  Univ.  Press,  1898. 

31 


CHAPTER  V.— THE  PEDAGOGY  OF  NATURE  5TUDY. 


"The  education  of  the  child  must  accord  both  in  mode  and  arrangement  with  the  education  of  mankind 
as  considered  historically;  or,  in  other  words,  the  genesis  of  knowledge  in  the  individual  must  follow  the 
same  course  as  the  genesis  of  knowledge  in  the  race." — Spencer. 


As  a  result  of  the  studies  thus  far  pursued  it  is  expected  that  the  teacher  will  take  a 
keener  interest  in  the  observation  and  study  of  children.  This  will  lead  to  a  better  under- 
standing of  the  individual  child  and  the  establishment  of  more  sympathetic  relations  between 
him  and  the  teacher.  The  most  favorable  conditions  for  his  development  will  be  at  once 
apparent  and  teachers,  as  a  body  and  as  individuals,  can  do  much  in  the  way  of  improving 
the  conditions  under  which  young  children  struggle.  With  a  clear  understanding  of  the 
biogenetic  law  the  teacher  is  no  longer  an  automaton,  but  capable  of  independent  thought  and 
judgment  concerning  the  materials  of  the  course  of  study  and  methods  of  presentation.  She 
should  be  able  to  diagnose  defects  and  prescribe  remedies. 

A.  Purposes  of  Nature  Study.  One  of  the  most  sweeping  and  most  satisfactory 
utterances  concerning  the  purpose  of  education  in  general,  is  that  it  is  a  process  by  which  the 
individual  is  adjusted  to  his  environment.  This  applies  to  all  times,  to  all  climes  and  to  animals 
as  well  as  man.  In  the  adjustment  of  the  race  to  its  present  civili/ed  environment  Nature 
knowledge  has  had  a  most  important  share,  as  has  been  outlined  in  chapter  III.  Considered 
in  its  broadest  sense  it  has  had  most  to  do  with  the  development  of  the  race  brain  and  from  it 
as  a  center  there  was  developed  those  subjects  of  the  elementary  school  which  are  of  richest 
content  (geography,  science,  literature  and  history)*— the  thought  subjects.  From  the  Nature 
studies  in  very  large  part,  and  from  the  above  thought  subjects  as  well,  there  was  gradually 
developed  and  perfected  the  expression  subjects — pantomime,  oral  expression,  composition, 
spelling,  penmanship,  reading,  numbers,  music,  drawing,  painting,  modelling  and  making. 
These  forms  of  expression  were  not  acquired  independently  of  one  another  nor  of  the  thought 
subjects  themselves.  The  idea  came  first,  the  desire  to  express  it  next  and  the  form  of 
expression  resulted.  Primitive  man  did  not  learn  to  count  until  he  had  something  that  he 
wanted  very  much  to  count,  nor  to  draw  until  he  had  something  in  his  mind  that  he  much 
desired  to  express  in  this  way.  All  of  the  industries  and  occupations  connected  with  the 
home  and  the  obtaining  of  food  and  clothing  were  developed  gradually  by  the  race  in  its 
efforts  to  utilize  Nature's  materials  and  to  secure  better  adjustment  to  the  changing 
environment.  So  far  as  the  historical  development  of  all  the  subjects  of  our  elementary 
schools  is  concerned — thought  subjects,  expression  work,  manual  training  and  domestic  art — 
they  have  all  had  a  Nature  basis.  It  is  desired  to  enumerate  what  the  writer  conceives  to  be 
the  claims  of  Nature  study  to  a  prominent  position  in  the  elementary  schools  of  today. 

i.  SENSE  TRAINING.  More  strongly  than  is  generally  recognized  today  by  those  who 
discuss  the  subject  the  writer  believes  in  the  disciplinary  value  of  Nature  Study.  This  he 
believes  to  be  of  primary  and  fundamental  importance.  In  a  favorable  environment  the  play 
impulse  will  take  care  of  the  muscular  development  and  the  building  up  of  the  motor  centers 
of  the  brain,  at  the  right  time  and  in  the  right  way.  If  left  to  himself,  also  in  a  favorable 
environment,  the  natural  impulse  to  use  his  senses  will  furnish  the  training  necessary  for  the 
development  of  his  sense  organs  and  the  corresponding  sense  centers  in  the  brain.  When, 
however,  the  child  is  imprisoned  in  the  school-room  for  the  choicest  hours  of  the  day  and  his 
energies  expended  in  activities  entirely  foreign  to  his  nature,  neither  motor  centers  nor  sense 
centers  can  develop  in  harmony  with  the  law  of  brain  development.  This  might  not  be  so 
serious  if  it  did  not  happen  that  upon  these  centers  as  a  foundation  are  to  be  built  up  the 
higher  centers  of  the  brain  and  its  entire  effectiveness  as  a  tool  of  the  mind  seriously 
impaired.  The  greatest  possible  amount  of  sense  training  should  be  secured  in  connection 
with  the  Nature  work,  every  special  sense  being  called  into  requisition  and,  in  addition,  the 
uscular  sense,  the  temperature  sense  and  the  sense  of  direction.  For  each  exercise  in 

32 


school  th6  children  will  set  for  themselves  hundreds  of  related  exercises  out  of  school.  The 
result  of  this  work  is  that  the  sense  organs  are  trained,  the  fundamental  brain  centers  are  de- 
veloped and  the  mind  is  stored  with  a  fund  of  elementary  concepts,  of  the  greatest  value  in  the 
later  apperceptive  work  of  the  school. 

As  indicative  of  the  value  of  this  training  to  the  individual  the  fact  may  be  cited  that 
whenever  one  person  stands  out  prominently  above  his  fellows,  in  any  avenue  of  life  in  which 
there  is  severe  competition,  it  will  be  found  that  this  individual  has  had  the  benefit  of  a  rural 
environment  during  the  critical  period  of  his  development.  Almost  without  exception  it  will 
be  found  that  he  was  reared  in  the  country,  or  in  a  village  with  its  rural  advantages,  or  that 
prolonged  visits  to  the  country  were  made  during  his  childhood.  If  one  will  write  down  the 
great  names  of  any  branch  of  knowledge  or  human  activity,  from  the  earliest  times  to  the 
present  day,  and  then  will  take  the  trouble  to  look  up  their  early  biography  he  will  be  im- 
pressed with  the  importance  of  the  rural  over  the  urban  environment.  This  is  all  the  more 
remarkable  when  we  consider  that  about  one-half  the  people  live  in  the  cities  and  that  here 
are  to  be  found  the  best  schools  and  other  institutions  calculated  to  promote  individual 
culture  and  power.  It  is  remarked  by  business  men  that  the  boys  from  the  country  come  to 
the  city  and  in  time  work  into  the  best  places.  The  subject  is  a  most  important  one  and 
worthy  of  the  fullest  investigation,  because  of  its  bearing  upon  the  education  of  city  children. 
In  searching  for  an  explanation  a  considerable  variety  of  views  will  be  developed.  Is  it  that 
the  average  country  boy  is  better  fed,  better  clothed,  has  better  air,  is  more  active  or  has 
more  responsibility  thrust  upon  his  shoulders  ?  There  are  many  city  boys  over  whom  the 
country  boy  has  no  such  advantage.  Some  see  the  explanation  in  the  opportunity  for  manual 
training  afforded  by  the  farm  but  this  could  scarcely  account  for  those  forms  of  genius  posses- 
sed by  the  poet,  orator,  statesman  or  financier.  The  most  probable  explanation  is  that  the 
environment  found  in  the  country  and  village  is  favorable  for  that  direct  contact  with  Nature 
in  this  critical,  formative  period  of  the  child's  development.  His  motor  and  sense  centers  are 
developed  symmetrically  and  naturally  and  a  stable  foundation  laid  for  those  centers  control- 
ling the  higher  mental  powers.  In  the  case  of  the  city  child  no  such  foundation  is  laid,  and 
in  the  highly  artificial  environment  of  this  industrious  and  commercial  age  he  is  prematurely 
developed.  Of  the  wealthier  classes  many  have  their  country  homes,  but  for  the  middle 
and  lower  classes  the  only  practicable  remedy  is  to  send  the  children  to  the  country  for  the 
summer  and  to  bring  as  much  as  possible  of  the  country  into  the  schools  during  the  year. 

2.  METHODS  OF  STUDY.     Beginning  with  the  very  simple,  superficial  observations  of  the 
younger  children  the  result  of  the  Nature  work  of  the  elementary  grades  should  be  to  develop 
correct  methods  of  scientific  study.     The  results  secured  will  form  a  splendid  foundation  for 
the  work  of  the  high  school,  in  the  case  of  the  limited  number  who  continue  their  studies,  and 
will  render  life-long  service  to  those  who  are  compelled  to  drop  out  at  the  close  of  the  eighth 
grade.     Following  the  lead  of  primitive  man  the  child  observes   more   or  less  superficially,  il- 
logically  and  incompletely.     By  skillful  guidance  the  Nature  work  may  be  made  to  yield  a 
rich  harvest  of  results.     The  habit  of  observing  closely,  accurately  and  completely  and  accord- 
ing to  some   systematic  order,  may  be  acquired  by  school  children.     The  ability  to  discover 
differences  and  resemblances,  to  arrive  at  correct  judgments  and  to  reason  inductively  will 
result   from   Nature   work   that   is  properly   presented.     Every   child   should   be   made    to 
understand  the  danger  of  error  arising  from  hasty  judgments  based  upon  a  single,   or  limited 
number  of  observations.     (See   President   Eliot's  paper    "Wherein    Popular   Education    has 
Failed;"     Forum,  Volume  XIV,  page  411.)     The  child  should  be  gradually  freed  from  the 
bondage  and  tyranny  of  superstition.     Just  here  the   teacher  should   be   warned   that   these 
results  are  to  be  secured  as  the  result  of  the  Nature  study  and  elementary  science  of  the  entire 
sight  grades  and  that  only  a  beginning  is  desirable  for  the  primary  grades.     In  these  lower 
grades  the  constantly  recurring  question  should  be  what ;    in   the   intermediate   grades   what 
and  how  and  in  the  grammar  grades  what,  how  and  why. 

3.  ACQUISITION  OF  KNOWLEDGE.     In  placing  this  as  one  of  the  important  purposes  of 
Nature  work  in  the  schools  there  is  danger  of  the  teacher  inferring  that  it  is  the  sole,  or  most 
important  purpose.     This  attitude  of   the   teacher   is   rendered   easier  because  of  the  over- 
emphasis placed  upon  mere  information  in  the  other  subjects  of  the  school  course  and  results 
in  the  teacher  merely  lecturing  about  the  Nature  topics.     As  a  matter  of  fact  the  securing  of 
information,  adapted  to  the  age  of  the  pupil,  is  of  importance,  since  none  of  the  higher  results 

33 


enumerated  below  can  be  secured  without  it.  The  acquisition  of  this  knowledge  has 
educational  value,  in  proportion  to  the  method  emplo)'ed  and  the  knowledge  itself  helps  to 
give  the  child  a  command  over  his  environment  that  animals,  savages  and  the  uneducated  do 
not  possess.  Knowledge  may  be  considered  worth  while  that  enables  the  individual  to  cause 
two  grains  to  grow  where  there  would  be  but  one,  to  predict  the  approach  of  important 
weather  changes  or  to  ward  off  an  attack  of  typhoid  or  blood  poisoning.  The  rich  fund  of 
ideas  acquired  in  the  Nature  work  will  serve  as  a  basis  for  the  apperception  of  the  thought 
subjects  of  the  elementary  school; — science,  geography,  literature  and  history.  If  one 
attempts  to  develop  either  of  these  subjects  in  the  primary  grades  the  necessity  is  at  once  felt 
for  the  Nature  basis  and  the  historical  order  of  the  development  of  these  subjects  becomes  the 
pedagogical  order. 

4.  BASIS  FOR  EXPRESSION  WORK.     The  greatest  distaste  which   the   child   has   for   the 
school,  aside  from  the  restraint  imposed,  centers  about  the  expression  work.     An  interesting 
and  profitable  exercise  for  any   grade   teacher   would   be   to   have   her   pupils   indicate   upon 
unsigned  slips  of  paper  the  subject,  or   subjects,    that   they    are    least   in   love   with.     Under 
usual  conditions  the  subjects  mentioned  most  frequently  will  be  expression  subjects  and  the 
reason  for  the  disfavor  will  not  be  difficult  to   locate.     Children    are   called    upon   to   express 
themselves  in  various  ways  when    they    have   nothing   to   express   and,  as    Dewey    has   said, 
"there  is  all  the  difference  in  the  world  between  having  something  to  say   and  having   to    say 
something."     They  must  commit  so  many  pages  of  strange  words,   fill  so   man}'   pages   of   a 
writing  tablet,  or  drawing  book  and  periodically  prepare  a  "composition"  upon   some  subject 
about  which  they  care  little  and    know   less.     This   will   be   in   large   part   remedied   if   the 
impression  is  allowed  to  precede  the  expression.     There  must  be  a  certain  amount  of  substantial 
work  done  along  this  line,  which  the  average  child  will  scarcely  view  with  entire  favor,   but  it 
is  wise  to  secure  in  its  doing  the  greatest  possible  interest.     These  expression  subjects  are  of 
such  a  nature  that  they  can  be  developed  most  naturally,  and  hence  most  easily,  by   following 
again  the  historic  order  and  basing  them  upon  the  Nature   work   and   the   above   enumerated 
thought  subjects.     Any  attempt  to  develop  expression  work  entirely  independently  of  these 
subjects,  and  it  may  and  is  being  done,  will   meet   with   the    disfavor  of   the   pupil   and    the 
amount  accomplished  can  not  be  as  great  as  when  pupil  and  teacher  are  working  unitedly  and 
happily  towards  a  common  end.     Superintendents  and  school  officers  should  simply  hold  the 
teacher   responsible    for   results   and    this   will   probably   be   done   when    the    teachers   have 
demonstrated  that  they  are  experts  in  their  line.     This  does  not  mean  that  any  less  time  will 
be  devoted  to  the  expression  work  of  the  school,  but  simply  that  its   various   phases   will   be 
developed  as  the  desire  arises  for  the  expression  of  ideas  acquired   in   the  Nature  Study  and 
thought  work  of  the  school. 

5.  ETHICAL  TRAINING.     The  disciples  of  the  illustrious  Herbart   grant   to   the   Nature 
studies  high  value  in  the  training  of  character  but  claim  that  the>  have  no  ethical  content  in 
themselves.     They  are  to  be  thought  of  as  ethical  instruments  to  the   extent   that    they    make 
the  individual  careful,  industrious,  thoughtful  and  regardful  of   the   truth  (See  De  Garmo's 
"Herbart  and  the  Herbartians,"  pages  121  and  247.)      They   concern    themselves   with  facts 
and  their  explanation,  rather  than  good  and  bad  deeds  of  men,   as  narrated  in  literature  and 
history.     This  must  be  admitted  to  be  true  for  genuine  science  and  geography,  which  will  be 
developed  from  the  Nature  studies,  but  is   not   necessarily    true    for   the    Nature   work    that 
should  find  its  way  into  the  elementary  schools.     This  work  is  not  to  cease  with  the  simple 
observations  upon  the  material  but  reaches  out  and  establishes  vital  relations  with   the  child 
himself.     Herein  lies  the  real  moral  content.     Starting  with  the  formidable  list  of  undesirable 
ethical  traits,  supposedly  inherited  from  hunting  and  fishing  man,    the   first   higher    trait   of 
character  to  be  developed  is  sympathy.     But  sympathy  for  what  ?     Preferably  for  other  human 
beings  first  and  then    later   for   animals   and    plants.     If   we   are   correct   in    assuming   that 
sympathy  for  animal  life  was  developed  first  during  the  pastoral  life  and  then  transferred   to 
mankind,  then  the  historical  order  becomes  again  the  pedagogical  order.     In  the  home  every 
child  should  have  one  or  more  pets,  not  only  to  play  with  but   to  care  for.     At  school  there 
should  be  moths,  butterflies,  grasshoppers,    ants   and    bees,  frogs  and    toads,    rabbits,    birds, 
plants  and  trees  in  the  care  of  which  he  has  his  full  share.     The  savage  impulse  to  kill  can 
be  fully  eliminated  only  by  displacing  it  with  the  impulse  to  preserve  and  when  the  process  is 
complete,  hunting  and  fishing  can  no  longer  be  indulged   in    as   sport.     Such    a   boy    will    no 
longer  deliberately  and  gleefully  pull  the  wings  from  a  fly,  crush  the  life  out  of  a  toad,   wring 

34 


the  necks  of  young  birds,  or  bark  a  young  tree.  With  his  sympathies  thus  fully  aroused 
towards  animals  and  plants  the}'  will  not  long  be  withheld  from  his  companions  and  the 
foundation  is  well  laid  for  the  development  of  all  the  ethical  traits.  Without  this  basis  the 
moral  structure  that  the  teacher  attempts  to  erect  is  unstable  and  liable  to  go  to  pieces  just 
when  it  is  most  needed.  **« 

6.  AESTHETIC  TRAINING.     As  the  result  of  the  Nature   work  of  the  elementary   school 
the  child  is  led  gradually  to  appreciate  the  unity  and  harmony  that  everywhere  characterizes 
Nature  and  her  laws;  the  common  source  of  energy,  the  unity  in  structures,  harmonious  and 
uniform  laws  of  development,  and  the  striking  similarities  found  in  the  physiological  processes 
of  plants   and   animals.     As  he  gains  a  deeper  insight    into    Nature's    laws    and   processes  he 
appreciates  more  and  more  the  principles  of  adaptation  and  the  dependence  and  interdependence 
of  the  three  kingdoms  of  Nature.     There  is  no  longer  presented  to  him  "the  appearance  of  an 
inextricable  chaos  but  that  of  a  well-ordered  mechanism,  its  parts  fitting  exactly  to  one  another, 
ruled  by  unchangeable  laws  and  engaged  in  perpetual  labor  and  production."     All  the  beauty 
that  we  recognize  in  Nature  results  from  this  unity,  order  and  perfect  adaptation  of  organism 
to  environment   and   organ  to  function.     Insight    into    Nature   is   required    in   order  to  fully 
appreciate    this    beauty,  whether  of  the    snowrlake,  the    leaf,  flower  or  ocean    shell.     In    the 
inorganic   world  all  that   pleases   and    fascinates  the  eye  is  the  result  of  unity,  order  and  har- 
mony.    In  the  organic  world  that  only  is  beautiful    which  is  useful  and  an  understanding  of 
the  utility    secures  a  deeper    appreciation  of  the  beauty.     So  far  as  art  is  the  representation  of 
Nature  it  can  be  interpreted  and  fully  enjoyed  only  through  the  fund  of  concepts    obtained  by 
direct  contact  with  natural  objects  and  natural  phenomena.     So  long  as  our  choicest  literature 
is  inspired  by,  and  filled  with  illustrations  drawn  from  Nature,  so  long  will  it  be  necessary  for 
the  individual  to  go  to  this  fountain-head  for  the  store  of  apperceptive  knowledge. 

7.  FOUNDATION  FOR  RELIGIOUS  BELIEF.     In  contrast   with    the   English   and   German 
schools  the  teaching  of  religion  in  American    public  schools  is,  rightly  or  wrongly,  forbidden. 
It  becomes  the  duty  and  privilege  of  the  Nature  Study  to  lay  a  foundation  for  the  religious  be- 
lief that  is  based  upon  no  particular  creed  or  word  of  authority; — a  foundation  that  is  built  up 
as  the  result  of  the  child's   own   cogitation    and  to  which  no  sane    churchman  or  layman    will 
interpose  objection.     The  laws  of  development,  to  which  we  give  the  name  evolution,  account 
for  the  modification  of  life  but  not  its  origin.     The  teaching  of  science   to-day  is  that  life  does 
not  originate  of  its  own  accord — spontaneously — but  that  it  is  always  derived    from  some  pre- 
existent   form  of  life.     The    inference  is  justified  that  the  original  life  mu^t  have  been   created 
and  hence  that  there  is  a  CREATOR.     The  unity,  order  and  harmony   eve^where  found  in  the 
universe  points  to  the  singleness  of  this  Creator.     The  tremendous  energies  that  we  have  been 
able  to  trace  to  the  sun  point  to  that  body  as  endowed  with  energy  beyond  the  comprehension 
of  the  human    mind.      Knowing  that  this  luminary  can  not  originate   energy  and  that  it  is  but 
one  of  millions  of  similar  bodies,  we  are  driven  to  the   conclusion    that    there   must   exist    an 
Agency   that  is  all-poiverful.     Everywhere  in  Nature  we    find    evidence  of  wisdom  far   beyond 
the  comprehension  of  man.     The  principles  of  Natural  Selection  explain  many  beautiful  adap- 
tations but  we  must  never  forget  that  these   principles   themselves   must  be  explained  and  ac- 
counted for.     The  supplying  of  our  needs  in  proportion  to  our   wants   testifies  to  the  supreme 
goodness  of  this  all-wise  and  all  powerful  Creator.    Still  further  attributes  to  be  clearly  discerned 
from  a  study  of  Nature  are  economy,  foresight  and  patience.     But  granting  and  accepting  all 
this  does  not  necessarily  make  the  individual  religious.     Ther^must  first  be  developed  a  feeling 
of  helplessness  and  dependence.     Nature  work  need  be  carried   through  only  a  few  seasons  be- 
fore the  individual  is  firmly   convinced  that  he  is  absolutely   dependent    upon   other   persons, 
animals,  plants  and  inorganic   matter  and  that   these  all  derive   their  ability  to  help  him  from 
the  sun.     Here  is  where  the  sun-worshiper  stopped,  but  all  that  he  needed  to  make  him  truly 
devout  was  to  have  some  one  point  out  Him  who  made  the  sun. 

B.  Principles  of  Method.  A  charge  that  is  often  made  against  special  schools  for  the 
training  of  teachers  is,  they  over  emphasize  methods  and  devices  and  tend  to  make  machines  of 
their  pupils.  In  too  many  cases  in  the  past  this  accusation  has  been  justified  by  the  practices 
of  such  schools.  Upon  the  other  hand  some  of  our  universities  and  colleges  have  completely 
ignored  the  subject  of  method,  claiming  that  if  the  prospective  teacher  has  thoroughly  mastered 
her  subject,  she  will  find  a  way  to  teach  it  and  this  she  will  do,  in  the  great  majority  of  cases, 
providing  she  has  a  body  of  children  and  sufficient  time  given  her  to  experiment  upon  them. 
As  is  usual  the  "happy  mean"  lies  between  these  two  extremes,  it  being  possible  to  impart  to 

35 


a  prospective  teacher  certain  principles  of  method,  whicli  if  applied  Will  contribute  much  to 
her  immediate  success  in  the  school-room.  The  writer  has  seen  the  value  of  method  strikingly 
shown  by  a  most  enthusiastic  women  teacher  of  swinimittg,  an  art  in  which  theory  is  supposed 
to  count  for  but  little.  This  woman  teaches  people  in  from  one  to  two  hours  to  swim  and 
•withoutgoing  near  the  water.  In  presenting  the  following  body  of  principles  an  effort  is  made  to 
have  the  reader  understand  the  reason1  for  each,  so  that  none  of  them  is  to  be  blindly  followed. 

1.  The  Nature  topics  should  connect  themselves  more  or  less  closely  with  the  season,  in 
order  that  the  material  may  be  available  and  to  insure  the  greater  interest  of  the  child.    A  few 
topics   that  are  eqnally   seasonable  at  all  times  may   well  be  reserved  for  winter   work,  when 
seasonable  Nature  topics  are  less  plentiful  than  in  the  spring  and  fall. 

2.  The   work   should  be  largely  upon  well  selected  types,  which   should  be  familiar  and 
should  come  from  the  immediate   environment  of  the  school.     The  advantage  of  this  method 
of  study  is  that  when  this  type  is  understood,  there  is  also  understood  in  a  general  way,  all  the 
other  forms  for  which  this  type  stands.     Comparison  of  other  forms   should  be  tnade  with  the: 
type,  making   abundant   use  of  pictures,  and  the  foreign   forms  thus  understood   through  the 
home  representatives. 

3.  As  far  as  is  practicable  begin  with  the  living  forms,   in  their  natural  environment. 
This  will  ensure  that  the  whole  is  first  presented  to  the  child,  instead  of  some  part,   and  that 
its  relation  to  its  environment  has  been  observed.     In  many  cases  the  forms  may  be  transferred 
to  the  school-room  for  more  complete  observation,  study  and  care. 

4.  Ideally  the  material  studied  by  each   pupil  should   have   been  collected  by   himself, 
since  this  intensifies  the  interest  and  takes  the  child   into   its   natural   environment.     In    the 
case  of  certain  types  of  plants  they  should  have  been  grown  by  the  child,   either  at  school  or 
at  home,  because  this  adds  to  the  interest,  knowledge  and  sympathy  of  the  child  for  the  plant. 
In  the  case  of  the  city  schools  this  principle  will  need  to  be   violated   often,    but   the   teacher 
should  understand  that  much  is  thereby  sacrificed. 

5.  Just  as  far  as  is  practicable  every  child   should  have   one   or   more   specimens   ior 
individual  study,  or  should  perform  the  experiment.     The  observations  are  to  be  directed   by- 
questions  definitely  in  the  mind  of   the    teacher,    leading   the   children    to   observe    the   most 
obvious  and  general  characteristics  first  and  then  gradually  passing  to  those  most  likely  to> 
be  overlooked.     The  ability  to  observe  accurately,  completely  and  according   to   the   natural 
order  is  to  be  slowly   and   gradually   acquired,    along  with   power  of   continued   attention. 
Freedom  should  be  permitted  but  much  digression  avoided.     In  the  lower  grades  the  replies 
will  necessarily  be  oval,  but  when  the  children  are  old  enough  to  write  more  originality  will 
be  secured  if  the  replies  are  written. 

6.  The  work  should  be  of  an  intensive,  rather  than  an  extensive  nature,  when  the  stage 
of  advancement  of  the  pupils  is  fully  considered.     In   studying   one    form    well,    rather   than 
many  superficially,  the  child  acquires  the  scientific  habit  which  is  of  high  value.     It  must  be.: 
remembered,  however,  by  the  teacher  that  the  child  demands  variety,   in  order  to  sustain  his: 
interest,  and  the  topic  under    study    must   present    many    different    view-points.     When    the 
interest  of  the  class  begins  to  flag  something  is  wrong,  either  with  the   topic   or   the   teacher,, 
and  if  the  fault  can  not  be  located  and  remedied  a  new  topic  should  be  found  without  delay. 

7.  In  order  to  secure  the  desired  results  the  child  must  be  allowed  to  discover  certain 
things  for  himself  and  the  teacher  should   use    the   necessary   self-restraint    to   avoid   telling. 
Telling  the  wrong  thing  and  at  the  wrong  time,  deadens  interest  and  cheats  the  child  out  of 
his  due.     I  rarely  see  a  Nature  lesson  given  that  I  do  not  long  for  an  electric  muzzle  attached 
to  the  teacher's  jaw   and   operated   by   a   push-button.     The   time  does  come   for  telling, 
however,  when  for  lack  of  time  to  be   devoted   to   the   subject,    or  from   the   nature   of  the 
question,  the  children  have  done  all  that  can  be  expected  of   them.     Here   is   the   legitimate 
place  for  pictures,  stories,  anecdotes,  nature- readers  and  the  small  amount  of  lecturing  that  is 
permissible. 

8.  Do  not  make  the  mistake  of  teaching  what  the  children  already  know,  but  begin  wht»re» 
the    average  knowledge  of  the  class  ceases.     Proceed  slowly  and  step  by  step.     Avoid  boo. 
technical  terms  and  teach  names  only  as  they  are  needed.     Reasons  and  explanations  shottld- 
be  sparingly  demanded  of  the  younger  children.     Avoid  too  much  or  too  early  generalization^. 
Do  not  ask  questions  that  children  can  not  possibly  be  expected  to  answer. 

36 


9.  In  connection  with  the  work  of  each  season,  of  each  topic  and  of  each  lesson,  have   a 
definite,  attainable  aim.     This  aim  should  appeal   to    the  child  in  order  to  arouse  his  full  inter- 
est and  serve  as  an  incentive  to  his  best  efforts.     Emphasize  the  human  element  as  much  as 
possible  and  make  frequent  application  of  principles  deduced. 

10.  The  economic  phases  of  the  various  topics  should  be  developed,  these  being  of  greatest 
interest  and  value  to  the  child.     Topics   should  be   selected  very  largely  because  of  their  eco- 
nomic importance. 

1 1 .  The  observational   study  of  animals  and  plants  should  be  given  first  place  these  hav- 
ing been  of  fundamental  importance  to  the  race.     Following  this  should  come  the  study  of  the 
weather,  the  home  geography  and  the  minerals  and  rocks.     Still  later  the  simple  principles  of 
physics,  chemistry  and  physiology,  with  suitable  experimentation. 

12.  All  the  Nature  topics  should  be  as  thoroughly  knit  together  as  possible  ("unified," 
"integrated,"  "correlated,")  the  strictly   logical  order   being   sacrificed    for   the  pedagogical 
order.     In  this  way  one  topic  will  supplement   and   strengthen    the   others.     It   may   not    be 
feasible  to  take  up   the   related    topics   simultaneously    but    they   may   be   taught   in   proper 
sequence  and  by  means  of  drill  and   reviews   the  earlier   acquired   knowledge   may   be   fully 
util'zed  in  apperceiving  the  new. 

13.  As  soon  as  the  children  have  made  the  necessary  progress  simple  note-books  should 
be  kept  and  the  Nature  work  correlated  with  the  expression  work  of   the   school.     The   time 
devoted  to  the  Nature  lessons  should  be  employed  as  fully  as  possible  in  firsthand  observations 
with  the  children  face-to-face  with  the  material.     The  formal  accounts  of  the  work  should   be 
made  an  exercise  in  oral  or  written  language  and  should  be  given  the  time  set   apart  for  this 
expression  subject.     The  mastery  of   the   spelling  of   the   needed  terms,    along  with   those 
required  in  the  other  thought  subjects,  should  be  secured  during  the  time  devoted  to  spelling. 
The  formal  copying  of  the   corrected   notes   should    constitute   an    exercise   in   penmanship. 
When  drawings  are  required  they  should  be  made  during  the  drawing  period  and  the  teacher 
should  be  on  hand  to  teach  the  necessary  principles.     In  this  way   there   may   be   secured   a 
very  creditable  note-book,  and  at  the  same  time  valuable  drill  in  expression  without   taking 
any  extra  time  of  pupil  or  teacher.     The  following  advantages  of  keeping  such   a   note  book 
will  occur  at  once  to  the  thoughtful  teacher. 

a.  There  is  thus  secured  a  permanent  record  for  reference. 

b.  Leads  to  more  accurate  and  complete  observations. 

c.  Results  of  work  are  more  firmly  held  in  the  memory. 

d.  Gives  opportunity  for  the  ideal  development  of  the  expression  work. 

e.  Enables  the  teacher  to  judge  of  the  quality  and  quantity  of  each  pupil's  work. 

f.  Secures  an  orderly  arrangement  of  the  divisions  of  each  topic. 

14.  The  following  general  plan  for  the   study   of   a   living  type   may   be   found   to   be 
suggestive,     a.     Preparation;  in  which  is  ascertained  the  state  of  the  pupil's  knowledge,   the 
recalling  of  former  concepts  now   needed,    statement   of   aims   and   arousing   of  interest,     b. 
Simple  environment,     c.     General  parts  and  their  characteristics,     d.     Points  of  adaptation, 
e.     Habits,     in     case     of     animals,     f.     Life     history,     or   seasonal     history,     g.     Simple 
classification,     h.     Relation  to  man.     i.     Related   forms.       The   mere   anatomy   of   animals 
and  plants   should    be   introduced   only    that    the   habits    and   points   of   adaptation    to  the 
environment  may  be  appreciated.     The   most   interesting   and  valuable   work   centers   about 

/hat  the  organism  does  to  maintain  itself  and  how  it  came  to  be  what  it  is. 

C.  Course  of  Study.  Two  enthusiastic  workers  and  writers  along  the  line  of  Nature 
tudy — Prof.  Bailey  and  Dr.  E.  F.  Bigelow — have  recently  opposed  the  idea  of  having  any 
cbedule  whatever,  simply  depending  upon  what  the  children  can  be  encouraged  to  bring  in 
:>r  the  day.  They  limit  the  results  to  be  secured  mainly  to  the  development  of  a  close  bond 
sympathy  and  love  for  Nature  and  fear  that  this  can  not  be  secured  if  a  definite  outline  is 
emulated.  In  blindly  following  a  rigid  schedule  there  is  danger  of  losing  this  higher  aim 
ad  more  especially  if  the  child  is  given  in  advance  a  syllabus  of  the  ground  to  be  covered  in 
ie  year,  or  through  the  eight  grades.  Either  Prof.  Bailey  or  Dr.  Bigelow  could  take  the 
vig,  shell,  pebble  or  insect  from  the  tiny  fingers  and  have  the  children  so  enthusiastic  that 
ley  could  not  be  kept  in  their  seats,  but  with  the  majority  of  teacheis  the  lesson  would  de- 
slop  into  an  impromptu  lecture,  and  a  very  poor  one,  from  a  single  specimen.  The  same 

37 


atliolidt  of  time  and  energy  may  be  made  to  yield  much  more  definite  results  and,  at  the  sattifi 
time,  greatly  strengthen  the  child'-s  love  and  sympathy  for  Nature. 

The  advantages  of  having  a  course  of  study  based  upon  the  interests  and  needs  of  the 
child,  elastic  enough  to  permit  adjustment  to  various  localities  and  variable  grades  of  pupils, 
will  be  apparent  to  the  practical  teacher.  There  is  thus  permitted  an  orderly  development  of 
the  various  topics  along  pedagogical  lines,  the  teacher  has  an  opportunity  to  make  all  needed 
preparation,  each  teacher  may  know  what  has  been  done  in  the  preceding  grades  and  what  is 
intended  for  the  grades  following  her  own.  Too  much  repetition  is  thus  avoided,  which 
would  prove  fatal  to  interest,  and  the  keen  edge  is  not  taken  off  of  topics  to  be  treated  later. 
The  teacher  may  make  use  of  expert  knowledge  in  the  difficult  task  of  planning  her  schedule 
of  work  and  may  soon  be  master  of  the  topics  selected.  The  course  of  study  is  to  be  in  the 
mind,  or  in  the  desk  of  the  teacher  and  not  presented  to  the  pupils.  If  the  topics  are  of  fund- 
amental interest  to  the  children  and  closely  related  to  the  season,  the  out-door  observations 
and  collecting  will  be  just  as  spontaneous  and  as  enthusiastically  done  as  though  no  schedule 
had  been  attempted.  The  small  amount  of  system  introduced  into  the  work  will  intensify  the 
interest  and  lead  to  more  thorough  exploitation  of  the  region. 

The  almost  overwhelming  task  of  framing  a  course  of  study  for  the  elementary  grades  is 
greatly  lightened  by  the  application  of  the  principles  of  the  Culture  Epochs.  This  doctrine 
explains  the  nature  of  the  child,  the  topics  necessary  for  his  development,  the  ideal  results  to 
be  secured,  and  the  proper  method  of  presentation  and  the  interrelation  of  subjects.  Could 
anything  be  more  beautiful?  From  the  world's  greatest  educators  cull  out  those  principles 
and  practices  that  modern  pedagogy  accepts  as  sound  to-day  and  they  will  be  found  in  entire 
harmony  with  this  doctrine.  Upon  the  other  hand  pick  out  those  "fads"  that  have  flashed 
into  prominence  and  have  been  discarded,  such  as  the  Grube  method,  Speer  method,  spiral 
method,  first  grade  Shakespeare,  etc.,  and  note  how  forcibly  they  violate  the  fundamental 
principles  of  the  recapitulation  doctrine.  Any  method  that  does  this  should  be  viewed 
with  the  greatest  distrust.  Although  accepting  more  or  less  fully  the  value  of  the 
principles  involved  the  modern  Herbartians,  following  the  lead  of  Ziller,  endeavor  to  develop 
the  thought  and  expression  work  from  history  and  literature.  This  is  not  the  historical  order, 
is  consequently  unnatural  and  the  result  can  never  be  fully  satisfactory.  In  the  course  of 
study  submitted  in  the  following  chapter  an  attempt  has  been  made  to  plan  a  course  of  Nature 
work,  so-called,  from  which  it  is  possible  to  develop  the  science,  geography,  literature  and 
history  of  the  primary  school  and  upon  which  may  be  based  the  various  forms  of  expression. 

In  order  that  the  course  may  be  as  flexible  as  possible,  so  that  it  may  be  readily  adapted 
to  different  localities  and  ihe  variable  capacities  of  pupils,  there  has  been  selected  a  central 
thought  for  each  season,  which  serves  as  a  correlating  thread  for  binding  together  the  various 
topics.  In  case  the  material  mentioned  is  not  available  in  the  locality,  a  substitute  equally 
good,  possibly  better,  may  readily  be  found  for  developing  this  thought.  The  teacher  knows 
what  to  look  for.  These  central  thoughts  have  been  derived  from  those  problems  that  were 
uppermost  in  the  minds  of  primitive  man  and  hence  must  appeal  strongly  and  naturally  to 
children  in  the  corresponding  stage  of  development.  These  vital  problems  were  the  securing 
of  shelter  and  protection  by  means  of  the  /tome,  the  making  of  clothing,  the  obtaining  of  food, 
the  production  and  use  of  fire  and  means  of  transportation.  To  the  Herbartian  these  central 
thoughts  will  not  be  acceptable  because  the  ethical  element  is  apparently  lacking.  This  ap- 
parent lack  is  necessitated  by  the  historical  order  of  development  of  the  ethical  traits  them- 
selves. We  secure  the  result  that  all  good  teachers  desire  above  everything  else  by  indirect 
means.  The  lower  nature  of  the  child,  inherited  from  the  race,  can  not  be  plucked  out  by  the 
roots  and  discarded,  but  upon  it  there  may  be  "grafted"  or  "budded"  thrifty  scions  that  will 
bear  better  and  more  abundant  fruit  because  the  stem  and  roots  are  naturally  grounded. 
When  in  her  enthusiasm  for  universal  peace  Mrs.  Mead  pleads  with  the  mothers  to  keep  from 
their  children  the  toy  cannon  and  the  tin  soldier,  she  makes  the  same  mistake  that  the  music 
and  art  teacher  would  if  they  sought  to  eliminate  rhythm  and  gaudy  color  from  the  life  of  the 
child.  The  ideal  preparation  for  to  morrow's  living  is  ideal  living  to-day. 

The  child  can  be  most  simply  and  completely  adjusted  to  this  highly  complex  environment 
by  briefly  retracing  the  path  that  was  trodden  by  the  race.  We  plead  for  the  "obsolete  pro- 
cess "  because  of  its  simplicity,  its  interest  to  the  child  and  the  insight  into  human  progress 
that  it  affords.  A  person  set  down  upon  a  strange  road  with  no  idea  of  where  it  conies  from, 

38 


nor  where  it  leads  to,  may  somewhat  appreciate  the  feelings  of  a  child  who  gets  his  first  knowl- 
edge of  milling  by  being  taken  to  the  latest  improved,  roller-process  establishment.  In  re- 
tracing the  path  that  was  trodden  by  the  race  the  child  need  not  be  led  into  the  quagmires  of 
error  and  superstition,  with  which  this  path  was  often  lined.  Prof.  De  Garmo  asks  shall  we 
begin  astronomy  with  astrology,  or  chemistry  with  alchemy?  Had  the  astrologers  and 
alchemists  really  been  successful  in  predicting  future  events  by  means  of  the  stars  and  planets, 
or  in  converting  the  baser  metals  into  gold,  we  should  have  an  ideal  starting  point  for  astron- 
omy and  chemistry.  Geometry  was  developed  from  the  necessity  for  earth  measurements 
along  the  Nile,  we  are  told,  and  there  is  no  better  method  of  beginning  the  subject  with  im- 
mature minds.  Had  it  been  developed  in  unsuccessful  attempts  to  signal  to  the  inhabitants  of 
Mars,  no  sensible  teacher  would  feel  called  upon  to  start  the  subject  until  where  it  had  reached 
the  solid  road  of  progress  towards  the  Truth. 

Since  the  work  of  each  year  presupposes  that  the  work  of  the  previous  year  has  been  done, 
in  starting  the  course  it  will  be  found  desirable  to  start  the  first  year's  work  in  each  of  the 
three  primary  grades,  doing  a  little  more  and  a  little  better  work  with  the  older  children. 
In  the  fourth,  fifth  and  sixth  grades  the  work  of  the  first  two  years  could  easily  be  done  in 
starting.  Where  two  grades  are  combined  it  will  not  be  found  feasible  to  carry  more  than 
one  line  of  work  at  the  same  time.  In  the  case  of  rural  schools  a  series  of  topics  may  be 
selected  and  studied  by  the  school  as  a  whole,  adjusting  the  work  as  far  as  possible  to  the 
individual  capacities  of  the  pupils.  Here  should  be  especially  emphasized  the  economic 
phases  of  plants,  animals,  soil  and  weather.  If  the  school  board  will  not  provide  the  small 
amount  of  apparatus,  reagents  and  materials  required  have  a  lecture  given,  or  get  up  an 
entertainment.  No  more  time  is  required  for  the  Nature  work  than  for  any  of  the  regular 
subjects  of  the  elementary  school,  but  it  should  have  as  much.  A  good  deal,  however,  can 
be  accomplished  with  three  periods  a  week  if  they  are  devoted  strictly  to  the  Nature  work 
and  the  necessary  expression  work  done  during  the  appropriate  periods.  The  weather  study 
may  very  satisfactorily  be  made  a  part  of  the  daily  opening  exercises,  the  necessary 
observations  having  been  made  before  school.  The  following  list  of  books  should  be  accessible 
to  the  teacher. 

REFERENCE  LIST. 

1.  NATURE  STUDY  AND  THE  CHILD — Scott.     Heath  &  Co.,  1900. 

2.  NATURE  STUDY  AND  LIFE — Hodge.     Ginn  &  Co.,  1902. 

3.  THE   PLACE  OF    INDUSTRIES   IN    ELEMENTARY    EDUCATION — Dopp.     University    of 

Chicago  Press,  1902. 

4.  THE  NATURE  STUDY  IDEA — Bailey.*    Doubleday,  Page  &  Co.,  1903. 

5.  How  NATURE  STUDY  SHOULD  BE  TAUGHT — Bigelow.     Hinds,  Noble  &  Eldredge,  1904. 
6      COURSE  OF  STUDY  IN  THE   EIGHT  GRADES — McMurry,    2   volumes.     The   Macmillan 

Co.,   1906. 

7.  HANDBOOK  OF  NATURE  STUDY — Lange.     The  Macmillan  Co.,  1898. 

8.  SYSTEMATIC  SCIENCE  TEACHING — Howe.     Appleton  &  Co.,  1894. 

9.  LONGMAN'S  OBJECT  LESSONS — Salmon  &  Woodhull.     Longmans,  Green  &  Co.,  1894. 
10.     NATURE  STUDY  FOR  THE  COMMON  SCHOOLS — Jackman.     Holt  &  Co.,  1894. 

n.     SPECIAL  METHOD  IN  SCIENCE — McMurry.     Public  School  Publishing  Co.,  1896. 

12.  NATURE  STUDY  IN  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS — Wilson.     The  Macmillan  Co.,    1899. 

13.  OBJECT   LESSONS    IN   ELEMENTARY   SCIENCE — Murche,    3   volumes.     The   Macmillan 

Co.,  1901-2. 

14.  NATURE  STUDY  FOR  GRAMMAR  GRADES — Jackman.     The  Macmillan  Co.,  1899. 

15.  THE  SCHOOL  AND  SOCIETY — Dewey.     University  of  Chicago  Press,  1899. 

1 6.  THE  SEVEN  LITTLE  SISTERS — Andrews.     Lee  &  Shepard,  1888. 

39 


CHAPTER  VI.— PRIMARY  COURSE  OF  STUDY. 


"  I  should  not  try  directly  to  teach  young  people  to  love  Nature  so  much  as  I  should  aim  to  bring  Nature 
and  them  together,  and  let  an  understanding  and  intimacy  spring  up  between  them." — Burroughs, 


First  Grade.     Hunting  Phase.     Age  of  Combat. 

CENTRAL  FALL  THOUGHT :  — Shelter  and  Protection  Afforded  by  Homes  of  Animals, 

Plants  and  Man. 

Study  of  live  kitten  in  school-room  as  to  structure,  habits  and  adaptation. 
Varieties  of  cats  by  specimens  or  pictures.     Pussy's  cousins  by  pictures   and   stories;  wildcat, 

lynx,  puma,  leopard,  tiger  and  lion. 
Domestication  of  cat,  use  in  home  and  danger  to  birds. 

Bring  out  strongly  the  cleanliness,  love  for  home,  friendliness,  courage  and  affection  for  young. 

Story  of  old  "sabre-tooth"  and  primitive  man. 

Begin  written  language  with  picture-writing. 

Have  frequent  field  lessons  in  search  of  animal  and  plant  homes. 

Pods  as  seed  homes;  peas,  beans,  milkweed,  catalpa,  wild-cucumber,  etc. 

Caterpillars  of  all  kinds;  chrysalis  and  cocoon  formation. 
Gall  homes  upon  oaks,  willows,  cottonwood.  rose  bushes,  goldenrod,  blackberry,  etc. 

Homes  of  mud  and  paper  wasps. 

Land  snails,  water  snails,  mussels  and  caddis-fly  portable  homes. 

Squash,  pumpkin  and  gourd  seed  houses. 

Deserted  bird  homes  and  bird  departure. 

Properties  of  bark  and  uses  to  trees  of  region. 

Procure  a  good  roll  of  birch-bark  by  sending  away,  if  necessary. 

What  trees  first  shed  their  leaves  and  which  hold  longest  to  them? 

Autumn  leaves;  press  and  mount. 

Special  Thanksgiving  theme;  gratitude  for  shelter  and  protection  of  home. 

Simple   studies  on  evergreens   available  as  to  cones,  bark,  resins  and   leaves,  carried    through 

December  and  leading  up  to  the  Christmas  Tree. 

CENTRAL  WINTER  THOUGHT :— Simple  Homes  of  Early  Hunting  Man. 

Without  waiting  for  the  completion  of  the  fall  work  begin  the  consideration  of  human   homes 

from  vegetable  materials. 
Have  children  collect  the  needed  materials  and  construct  grass,  leaf  and  bark  houses 

of  their  own  designing. 

Look   sharply  for  points  of  excellence  in  the   stability,  ease  of  construction,  shedding  of  rain 

and  snow,  resistance  to  wind  and  protection  against  animals. 

Discuss  best  types  originated. 

Using  twigs  stuck  in  a  box  of  earth  show  children  how  houses  may  be  made  by  weaving  grass, 

leaves  or  flexible  bark. 

Have  children  design  a  tiny  house  from  a  single  piece  of  birch  bark. 
Use  resin  from  trees  as  cement  and  for  mending  cracks  and  holes. 

What  winter  birds  are  to  be  found  and  how  do  they  live? 

Using  an  old  dish-pan  lined  with  clay,  mould  a  rough   basin-like  affair  of  portland   cement  to 
represent  a  cave-home,  and  break  out  one  side  for  an  entrance. 

40 


Lite  atld  house-keeping  in  these  primitive   homes;  sleeping,  eating,  sitting,  washing,  Cooking, 

heating,  lighting,  protection  against  animals. 

Fit  up  the  cave  for  occupany  by  weaving   mats  of  straw  or  fiber,  crude  birch  baskets,  making 

tubs  or  pails  of  small  gourds,  miniature  logs,  and  selecting  stones  for  various  uses. 

Appropriate  stories,  folk  lore,  fables  and  myths. 

Sports  and  games  of  primitive  children. 
Simple  lessons  in  hygiene  upon  care  of  skin,  nails,  hair  and  teeth. 

Necessity  of  keeping  body  and  feet  dry  and  warm. 
Cause,  danger  and  treatment  of  colds.     Treatment  of  burns. 

CENTRAL  SPRING  THOUGHT : -Nature's  Awakening. 

In-door  germination  of  coarse  seeds  in  window  or  desk  gardens;  beans,  sweet  peas,  corn,  sun- 
flower, morning-glory,  wild-cucumber,  squash,  pumpkins,  gourds  and  melons. 
How  the  young  plant  gets  out  of  the  seed-coats,  through  the  ground,  and  what  it  does  afterward. 
Opening  of  leaf  and  flower-buds  on  twigs  kept  in  water. 

Out-of-door  observations  as  the  season  advances. 
Follow  through  the  buds  upon  a  single  bush,  such  as  a  lilac. 

Development  of  frogs  and  toads  from  eggs. 

Return  of  birds  'from  South.     Bird  calendar. 

Simple  bird  homes  made  from  boxes  and  erected  about  grounds. 

Feed  birds  suet,  nuts,  grain  and  bread  and  observe. 
Observations  upon,  foods  and  habits  of  birds.     Location  of  nests. 

Select  the  robin  for  special  study. 

Rearing  of  silk  worms  in  school-room. 

Which  trees  are  first  in  leaf  and  which  come  out  last? 

Butterflies  and  moths  emerging  from  winter  homes. 

•   If  feasible  have  brood  of  chickens  raised  with  incubator  or  hen. 

Celebrate  Bird-day  and  Arbor-day,  planting  white  mulberry,  osage  orange,  birch  and  pine. 

Rear  a  colony  of  tent  caterpillars  in  wire  gauze  cage. 
Transfer  plants  started  in-doors  to  suitable  beds  upon  the  school-grounds  and  have 

children  care  for  same. 
With  a  pole,  wires  and  vines  shape  a  tepee  of  full  size. 

SUGGESTIONS  TO  FIRST  GRADR  TEACHER. 

In  presenting  the  above  course  of  work  no  preliminary  knowledge  is  assumed,  or  required, 
the  teacher  being  expected  to  place  herself  upon  the  sam^e  plane  as  the  pupils,  learning  with 
them  and  from  them.  She  should  understand  the  importance  of  the  work,  the  methods  to  be 
followed  and  what  it  is  to  do  for  the  child.  The  kitten  is  first  introduced  to  bridge  over  the 
chasm  between  home  and  school,  to  "break  the  ice"  for  the  children  and  furnish  a  basis  for 
oral  expression.  It  might  well  be  made  the  very  first  exercise  upon  the  opening  of  school. 
Talking  about  it  and  their  pets  at  home  will  lead  them  to  forget  the  strangeness  of  their 
surroundings.  From  the  real  object  pass  to  the  picture  and  finally  to  the  written  word.  Ex- 
periment with  the  picture  method  of  expression  as  an  introduction  to  our  highly  artificial 
method.  The  cat  is  to  serve  as  a  type  of  the  group  of  animals  that  was  the  most  serious 
menace  to  the  home  circle.  Use  colored  chalk  and  crayon  and  coarse  sheets  of  paper  for  the 
drawings. 

The  topics  need  not  be  taken  up  in  any  particular  order,  except  as  made  necessary  by  the 
season,  and  animal  and  plant  work  may  be  carried  along  simultaneously.  The  central  thought 
is  the  correlating  thread  and  will  suggest  to  the  teacher  numerous  other  topics.  Get  together 
an  extensive  collection  of  stories,  anecdotes,  poems,  fables,  myths  and  pictures  and  classify  in 
envelopes.  Cheap  pictures  may  be  secured  from  the  Perry  Picture  Co.,  Maiden,  Mass,  and 

41 


from  A.  W.  Mumford,  Chicago,  111.,  378  Wabash  Ave.  Write  for  catalogue  and  samples.  A 
series  of  Nature  Study  charts  Is  sold  by  John  C.  Mouutjoy,  Chicago,  111.,  378  Wabash  Ave. 
The  work  of  the  three  seasons  may  be  allowed  to  over  lap,  especially  that  of  fall  and  winter. 
Caterpillars  and  other  insects  may  be  kept  in  chalk  boxes,  having  a  small  pane  of  glass  sub- 
stituted for  the  cover,  or  in  cages  made  of  wire  gauze  set  down  over  boxes  of  moist  earth. 
Have  the  best  aquarium  that  you  can  afford,  fitted  up  with  water  plants  and  animals,  so  that 
the  water  need  not  be  changed.  Fruit  jars,  battery  jars,  and  candy  jars  will  answer,  but  bet- 
ter ones  can  be  made  at  the  tinsmiths.  Directions  for  making  aquaria  are  given  in  Hodge's 
Nature  Study,  page  393.  They  may  be  purchased  from  the  Bausch  and  Lomb  Optical  Co., 
Rochester,  N.  Y.  Birch  bark  is  so  interesting  to  children  and  can  be  utilized  in  such  a  variety 
of  ways  that  a  good  supply  should  certainly  be  secured. 

If  approved  by  your  authorities,  place  the  Nature  work  the  last  exercise  in  the  afternoon, 
so  that  frequent  field  lessons  may  be  given  and  the  trip  extended  into  the  play  hours.  The 
fields,  woods,  streams  and  ponds  will  be  full  of  interest  for  teacher  and  pupil;  especially  in  the 
fall  and  spring.  Lay  in  a  supply  of  good  rich  loam  for  germination  work  of  the  early  spring. 
Keep  the  cocoons  cool  during  the  winter  and  spring,  where  the  mice  and  rats  can  not  injure 
them  and  do  not  bring  them  into  the  school-room  to  remain  until  the  weather  is  warm  enough 
outside  for  the  moths  or  butterflies.  If  you  have  the  white  mulberry,  orosage  orange  at  hand, 
you  may  easily  rear  a  brood  of  silk  worms  in  the  school-room.  Eggs  may  be  procured  from 
the  Nonotuck  Silk  Co.,  Florence,  Mass.  The  least  they  will  sell  is  25  cents  worth,  but  this 
will  supply  a  number  of  schools.  Drop  them  a  postal  about  April  ist  telling  them  to  save  you 
a  supply  and  then  write  for  them,  enclosing  money,  just  as  the  very  tiny  leaves  are  coining 
out.  The  young  may  be  kept  alive  for  a  few  days  upon  lettuce,  cut  into  very  fine  shreds  with 
scissors.  Have  children  feed  with  leaves,  free  from  moisture,  twice  a  day  and  transfer  daily 
to  clean  paper  and  fresh  leaves,  being  careful  to  not  overlook  any  of  the  worms  upon  the  dried 
leaves.  They  do  not  need  to  be  confined  in  a  cage  as  do  our  wild  caterpillars.  From  the 
same  company  get  their  booklet  on  Silk,  price  10  cents.  At  all  times  teach  and  practice  the 
utmost  tenderness  towards  animal  and  plant  life.  Release  the  moths  and  butterflies  that  come 
out  of  their  cocoons  in  the  school-room,  when  observations  are  completed.  Carry  the  young 
toads  and  frogs  to  favorable  places  for  them,  along  with  the  other  aquarium  material  at  the 
close  of  the  school  year.  A  small  collection  of  deserted  birds'  nests  may  be  made  in  the  fall. 
Do  not  endeavor  to  arouse  interest  in  birds'  eggs.  The  dry  portland  cement  may  be  easily 
procured  from  certain  dealers.  Add  about  twice  as  much  sand,  or  fine  gravel,  as  cement  and 
stir  up  with  water  into  a  thick  slush.  Some  little  time  after  the  frogs  and  toads  are  heard 
"singing"  in  the  early  spring  their  eggs  may  be  found  in  abundance  along  the  margins  of 
streams  and  pools.  The  frogs'  eggs  are  laid  in  gelatinous  masses  the  size  of  ones  fist,  attached 
to  weeds  or  twigs,  while  the  toads'  eggs  are  drawn  out  into  long  strands.  They  will  readily 
hatch  in  the  school-room  if  kept  in  fresh  water,  and  the  tadpoles  may  be  fed  upon  decayed 
leaves  or.  better  still,  green  algae  from  the  brook.  Tadpoles  of  the  frog,  one  year  old,  may 
be  found  in  the  ponds  and  will  show  their  later  transformations.  Give  the  toad  tadpoles  a 
bank  of  sand  after  they  have  passed  into  the  salamander  stage  and  after  they  have  left  the 
water  transfer  to  a  covered  dish  containing  moss  and  moist  sand  in  which  they  may  be  fed 
upon  small  insects  caught  by  sweeping  the  grass  with  an  insect-net.  Of  the  numerous  butter- 
flies available  the  milkweed  butterfly  should  not  be  overlooked.  Look  for  larvae  upon  the 
milkweeds,  transfer  to  the  school-room,  feed  for  a  few  days  upon  fresh  leaves  and  keep  your 
eyes  open. 

Children  of  this  grade  will  enjoy  a  little  simple  gardening  such  as  indicated  upon  the  out- 
line. Have  the  children  at  first  get  along  with  digging-sticks,  shells  and  suitable  stones  of 
their  own  selection.  If  these  prove  sufficient  there  will  be  no  need  of  introducing  modern 
tools,  after  the  first  spading  has  been  done.  These  children  are  not  ready  for  more  elaborate 
gardening,  which  would  better  be  withheld  until  a  little  later.  Simple  meteorological  work 
may  be  continued  throughout  the  year,  either  as  a  part  of  the  Nature  work,  or  for  opening 
exercises.  Four  points  of  the  compass,  taught  out-doors,  daily  movement  of  the  sun,  move- 
ments and  phases  of  the  moon;  clouds,  halos,  rain,  snow,  dew,  frost,  fog,  etc.,  observed  but 
without  attempt  at  explanation.  Use  as  many  myths  as  are  suitable.  Upon  a  large  calendar 
paste  colored  circles  to  represent  sunshine,  clouds,  rain  and  snow.  Make  summaries  at  the 
close  of  each  month  of  the  various  types  of  days  and  compare  the  various  months.  The  colored 

42 


circles  may  be  procured  from  dealers  in  kindergarten  supplies.  Those  of  any  size  and  color, 
with  mucilage  upon  the  back,  may  be  obtained  from  the  Scharf  Tag,  Label  &  Box  Co.,  Ypsi- 
lanti,  Mich.  Upon  another  calendar  show  the  phases  of  the  moon  by  pasting  on  well  made 
cuttings  of  paper,  allowing  the  children  to  discover  that  they  recur  at  regular  intervals.  Con- 
sider the  possibility  of  using  the  moon  for  measuring  time.  (The  school  year  might  be  kept  track 
of  in  "moons.")  Make  toy  weather-vanes  of  paste-board  and  discover  their  principle  by  blow- 
ing upon  them.  Have  a  suitable  vane  upon  or  near  the  school  building  and  note  the  directions 
of  the  wind.  Without  the  use  of  the  thermometer  have  children  state  their  impressions  of 
temperature  changes  and  connect  with  the  directions  of  the  wind.  Let  them  discover  that  the 
north  wind  is  cooler  and  the  south  wind  warmer,  inferring  the  climate  in  these  two  directions, 
and  finding  out  which  way  the  birds  would  better  move  when  they  are  ready  to  migrate. 
Myths  of  the  various  winds.  Connect  with  the  increasing  cold  in  the  fall  the  necessity  for 
plant,  animal  and  human  protection.  In  the  field  trips  train  the  sense  of  direction  by  keeping 
track  of  the  cardinal  points.  After  these  have  been  mastered  the  four  intermediate  points  may 
be  taught.  Miss  Katharine  Dopp's  "The  Tree  Dwellers"  (Rand,  McNally  &  Co.,  Chicago) 
will  make  most  interesting  and  valuable  reading  and  is  full  of  helpful  suggestions.  These 
children  will  enjoy  having  read  to  them,  after  the  winter  work  is  well  advanced,  "The  Story 
of  Ab,"  by  Waterloo  (Doubleday,  Page  &  Co.,  Chicago).  The  following  books  and  special 
articles  will  assist  the  teacher  in  planning  and  presenting  the  work  of  the  grade.  The  most 
serious  problem  is  that  of  adapting  the  topics  to  the  locality  and  the  particular  body  of 
children. 

HELPFUL  LITERATURE. 

1.  Lange's  Handbook  of  Nature  Study — Outline  on  cat,  page  97. 

2.  Longman's  Object  Lessons — Outline  on  cats,  pages  54  and  94. 

3.  The  Cat— Hviidekoper.     Appleton  &  Co.,  1895. 

4.  Book  of  Cats  and  Dogs — Johonnot.     Amer.  Book  Co.,  1884. 

5.  Neighbors  with  Claws  and  Hoofs — Johonnot.     Amer.  Book  Co.,  1885. 

6.  Stories  retold  from  the  St.  Nicholas  Magazine — Carter.     Century  Co.,   1904.     (The  Cat   Stories,    Panther 

Stories,  Lion  and  Tiger  Stories). 

7.  Insect  Life — Comstock.     Appleton  &  Co.,  1897. 

8.  Ways  of  the  Six-footed — Comstock.     Ginn  &  Co.,  1903. 

9.  Among  the  Moths  and  Butterflies — Ballard.     Putnam's  Sons,  1897. 

10.  Moths  and  Butterflies — Dickerson.     Ginn  &  Co.,  1901. 

11.  Nature  Biographies — Weed.     Douleday,  Page  &  Co.,  1903. 

12.  Outdoor  Studies — Needham.     Amer.  Book  Co.,  1898. 

13.  Elementary  Lessons  in  Zoology — Needham.     Amer.  Book  Co  ,  1895. 

14.  The  House  I  Live  In— Brown.     Amer.  Book  Co.,  1887. 

15.  Bird  Life — Chapman.     Appleton  &  Co.,  1903. 

16.  The  Birds  about  Us— Abbott.     Lippincott,  1895. 

17.  Birds  of  Village  and  Field — Merriman.     Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co  ,  1898. 

18.  Bird  Ways— Miller.     Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co.,  1885. 

19.  Little  Brothers  of  the  Air— Miller.     Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co.,  1894. 

20.  Citizen  Bird— Wright.    The  Macmillan  Co.,  1898. 

21.  How  to  Attract  the  Birds — Blanchan.     Doubleday,  Page  &  Co.,  1902. 

22.  Our  Birds  and  their  Nestlings — Walker.     Amer.  Book  Co.,  1904. 

23.  Nature  Myths— Cooke.     A.  Flanagan,  1895. 

24.  Seed-Babies — Morley.     Ginn  &  Co.,  1901. 

2*.  Flowers  and  their  Friends — Morley.     Ginn  &  Co.,  1901. 

26.  From  Seed  to  Leaf— Newell.     Ginn  &  Co.,  1894. 

27.  The  Frog  Book — Dickerson.     Doubleday,  Page  &  Co.,  1906. 

28.  The  Common  Toad-  Hodge.     Nature  Study  Leaflet  No.  i,  Clark  Univ. 

29.  The  Life  History  of  the  Toad— Gage.     Cornell  Teacher's  Leaflet,  No.  9. 

30.  Life  in  an  Aquarium — Rogers.     Cornell  Teacher's  Leaflet,  No.  n. 

31.  Evergreens,  and  How  they  Shed  their  Leaves — Gould.     Cornell  Leaflet,  No.  13. 

32.  Some  Tent-Makers— Comstock.     Cornell  Leaflet,  No.  5. 

33.  How  a  Squash  Plant  gets  out  of  the  Seed — Bailey.     Cornell  Leaflet,  No.  i. 

34.  Beans  and  Peas  before  and  after  Sprouting — Beal.     Michigan  Agricultural  College. 

43 


Second  Grade.     Hunting  and  Pishing  Stage.     Age  of  the  Chase. 

CENTRAL  FALL  THOUGHT ;— Maintenance  of  Life  in  Field  and  Forest. 

A  live  pet  dog  as  to  simple  structure,  habits  and  adaptation. 

Differences  between  dog  and  cat  as  to  structure,  habits  and  disposition. 

Varieties  of  dogs  by  pictures;  differences  and  uses  of  each. 

The  dog's  wild  cousins  by  pictures  and  stories;  wolf, 

jackal,  hyena  and  fox. 
Domestication  of  dog,  use  in  hunting  and  guarding  home. 

Weapons  of  primitive  man; 
axes,  spears,  darts,  bow,  arrows  and  quivers. 

Selection  and  use  of  suitable  materials. 
Collection  and  studies  of  different  varieties  of  quartz. 

Primitive  methods  of  boring  and  drilling  holes. 

Study  of  edible  and  poisonous  wild  foods  of  neighborhood. 

Basket  weaving  for  holding  edible  foods.     Vegetable  dyes  and  stains. 

Designing  of  traps  for  game  and  fish 

Study  of  live  fish  in  aquarium;  parts,  covering,  form, 

habits,  locomotion,  feeding  and  breathing.     Goldfish,  sunfish,  etc. 

Have  children  design  various  types  of  fishiug  nets. 

If  a  large  but  shallow  galvanized  tank  can  be  provided, 

have  children  experiment  with  miniature  logs  for  boats  and  rafts. 

Make  a  "dug-out"  by  burning,  birch  bark  canoes  and  paddles. 

Illustrate  the  action  of  the  rudder  upon  small  boats. 

Have  children  act  out  hunting  scenes  in  pantomime,  singly  and  in  groups. 

Search  fields  and  gravel  pits  for  yellow  and  red  ochre  for  paint. 

Help  children  originate  a  secret,  gesture  language. 

Primitive  methods  of  fire  making  illustrated. 
Primitive  cooking;  roasting,    broiling,    boiling 

with  hot  stones  and  baking. 
Drawing  and  clay  modelling  of  men,  animals,  fish  and  boats. 

CENTRAL  WINTER  THOUGHT;— Winter  Homes  of  Later  Hunting  Men. 

Tan  a  little  raw  sheep-skin  by  thorough  pounding  and  drying. 
From  scraps  of  thin  sheep  leather  have  children  construct  tepees, 

sewing  with  awl  (bone,  stone  or  thorn)  and  thong. 
Necessity  of  nomadic  life  and  possible  methods  of  transportation. 

From  scraps  of  chamois-skin  make  articles  of  clothing, 

of  children's  own  designing,  using  delicate  awl  and  sinew  for  thread. 

Similarly  let  each  design  and  make  a  pair  of  moccasins. 

Study  of  snow  and  snowflakes. 

Children  of  the  snow — the  Eskimo — their  homes  and  home  life. 

Mould  bricks  of  snow  and  construct  on  the  school  grounds  an  Eskimo  house. 

Eskimo  hunting,  boating,  cooking,  clothing, 

weapons  and  use  of  dogs. 

Let  children  make,  draw  and  model  as  many  articles  as  possible. 
Consider  games  and  sports  of  Eskimo  children. 

Their  long  summer  day  and  winter  night. 

Lessons  in  hygiene  an  extension  of  that  outlined  for  first  grade. 
Treatment  of  wounds  to  prevent  lockjaw,  blood  poisoning  and  hydrophobia 
Harm  resulting  from  eating  uncooked  and  unripe  foods. 
Benefits  of  perfect  ventilation. 

CENTRAL  SPRING  THOUGHT;— Importance  of  the  Sun  in  Nature. 

In  early  spring  set  up  and  observe  a  "shadow-stick,"  from  which  discover   that   the   sun    is 

rising  higher  each  day  in  the  heavens. 
Upon  base  of  shadow-stick  mark  off  a  simple  sun-dial. 

44 


• 


< 


T A5TTV 


Illustrate  method  of  keeping  time  by  burning  candles  and  by  hour-glass. 
Discover  that  a  pendulum  beats  time  and  suggest  its  use  in  regulation   of  clock   machinery. 

Teach  children  to  tell  time  by  means  of  clock. 
Get  as  many  children's  records  of  the  time  of  rising  and  setting  of  sun  necessary   to  discover 

that  the  day  is  growing  longer. 
Soak  a  variety  of  seeds  and  place  in  moist  saw-dust,  keeping  one  batch  cold,  the  other  warm. 

Conclusions  ? 
Discover  effects  of  increasing  warmth  upon  vegetation;  the  swelling  of  buds,  the  starting  of 

grass  and  early  weeds. 

Teach  children  how  to  read  a  thermometer. 
Locate  young  dandelions  in   some   loose   soil,    carefully   remove,    wash   roots   and   place   in 

suitable  bottles  of  water  for  study  and  drawing. 

Compare  the  growth  of  these  with  those  outside  the  school-room. 

Prepare  series  of  colored  drawings  to  show  the  gradual  development  of  dandelions  growing 

under  natural  conditions. 

Follow  through  the  changes  to  be  seen  in  single  blossoms. 
Have  pupils  bring  in  the  earliest  wild   flower    (not   the   plant)    that   they   discover,    keep   a 

record  by  painting  the  flower  on  a  large  calendar. 
Continue  similarly  the  bird  calendar  of  the  first  grade. 

Have  a  bird-day  celebration. 
Place  growing  plants  near  window,  some  farther  back  and  some  in  a  dark   box   with    single 

opening  to  show  search  for  light  by  leaves. 

Consider  the  reason  for  the  arrangement  of  dandelion  leaves,  and  then  of  plants   in   general. 
Show  how  men's  and  children's  activities  are  affected  by  the  changing  season. 

Give  the  children  a  second  chance  to  rear  a  brood  of  silk-worms. 
Follow  through  the  development  of  the  "wrigglers"  into  mosquitoes  in  a  covered  glass  dish. 

Harm  done  to  man  by  mosquito  and  prevention. 

Make  "blue  prints"  of  leaves,  grasses  and  flowers. 

Stories  of  the  "sun  worshipers." 

SUGGESTIONS  TO  SECOND  GRADE  TEACHER. 

No  formal  gardening  is  recommended  for  this  grade  since  the  children  are  not  yet  able 
to  take  full  charge  of  the  work  and  interest  in  plants  is  a  matter  of  rather  slow  growth. 
The  same  kind  of  work  recommended  for  the  first  grade  may  still  be  done,  the  children  caring 
for  beds  artistically  located  about  the  grounds.  The  spring  work  of  the  first  two  grades  is 
calculated  to  awaken  a  general  interest  in  the  plants  of  the  neighborhood  that  are  growing 
without  cultivation,  this  agreeing  with  the  historical  order.  The  child  is  to  be  led  to 
appreciate  the  importance  to  the  plant  of  the  heat  and  light  of  the  sun,  and  a  considerable 
variety  of  plants  may  be  used  for  the  purpose. 

The  weather  studies  of  the  first  grade  may  be  extended  throughout  the  second  grade. 
In  addition  to  the  weather  calendar  with  colored  circles,  the  direction  of  the  wind  may  be 
stamped  across  the  circle  with  an  arrow  made  on  a  rubber  stamp.  Send  a  design  of  the 
arrow  wanted  to  the  Detroit  Rubber  Stamp  Co.,  for  estimate  of  cost.  A  common 
"printing-pad"  will  also  be  needed  to  supply  the  ink.  Note  not  only  the  changes  in 
temperature,  but  also  the  kinds  of  weather  that  accompany  changes  in  the  direction  of  the 
wind;  the  east  and  west  winds,  as  well  as  the  north  and  south.  Upon  some  unused  portion 
of  blackboard  draw  a  couple  of  concentric  circumferences  with  colored  crayon  and  attach  a 
large  arrow  cut  from  strong  pasteboard,  with  which  to  indicate  the  direction  of  the  wind. 
Indicate  the  points  of  the  compass,  placing  north  at  the  top,  and  have  the  arrow  point  to  the 
direction  from  which  the  wind  comes,  as  in  the  case  of  the  weather-vane.  In  stamping  the 
arrows  upon  the  weather  calendar  have  them  fly  with  the  wind,  so  as  to  get  ready  for  the 
reading  of  a  government  weather  map  later.  In  the  spring  a  graphic  design  for  showing  the 
changes  in  the  length  of  day  and  night  and  the  increasing  temperature  will  be  found  of 
educational  value.  The  length  of  day  and  night  may  be  obtained  from  an  almanac  and  a 
series  of  parallel  columns  colored  to  show  the  relative  lengths  graphically.  At  the  side  of 
this  chart  may  be  figured  the  scale  of  a  thermometer  and  upon  each  column,  representing  each 
day  of  the  mouth,  can  be  placed  a  dot  to  indicate  the  reading  of  the  thermometer  taken  at  the 
same  hour  each  day.  These  dots  will  be  connected  with  a  line  to  show  the  temperature 

45 


"curve"  for  the  month.  Such  a  chart  will  show  strikingly  the  gradual  increase  in  temper- 
ature, as  the  days  increase  in  length  and  the  sun  has  more  chance  to  act.  With  this  increase 
in  sun's  action  should  be  closely  connected  the  changes  in  vegetation  and  animal  life,  includ- 
ing man  himself. 

Here  as  in  the  first  grade  there  is  much  suggested  for  the  child  to  do  and  the  teacher  need 
not  have  mastered  the  topics  in  advance.  Several  topics  may  be  carried  along  simultaneously 
when  the  material  is  available  and  in  danger  of  disappearing.  No  sharp  line  need  be  drawn 
between  the  work  of  the  seasons.  Some  of  the  older  boys  will  gladly  procure  from  the  fields 
the  cleaned  skull  of  a  dog  and  cat  for  comparison.  Lay  in  a  good  supply  of  dog  stories,  anec- 
dotes and  pictures  and  use  at  the  proper  time.  By  inquiries  ascertain  how  many  and  what 
breeds  of  dogs  are  represented  in  your  community.  Arouse  the  human  interest  by  reading 
such  stories  as  "Beautiful  Joe."  In  most  localities  chert  and  quartzite  may  be  abundantly 
collected  from  the  fields.  Flint  and  other  varieties  of  minerals  may  be  purchased  by  the  pound 
from  the  Foote  Mineral  Co.,  Philadelphia,  and  from  Ward's  Natural  Science  Establishment, 
Rochester,  N.  Y.  In  the  case  of  the  manual  training  and  domestic  science  work  the  attention 
of  the  teacher  is  strongly  called  to  the  fact  that  this  work  is  demanded  by  the  Nature  work, 
grows  directly  from  it  and  that  the  desire  and  motive  to  do  the  work  precedes  its  assignment. 
The  results  are  not  so  important  as  the  doing  and  every  child  can  do  as  well  as  primitive  man 
did  in  his  first  attempts.  With  a  little  practice  and  reading  the  teacher  can  do  still  better.  In 
the  pantomime  work  the  children  will  need  very  few  suggestions  as  they  take  to  this  naturally 
and  confidently.  Some  teachers  may  balk  at  the  question  of  encouraging  the  gesture  language 
for  the  grade.  In  favor  of  this  it  may  be  said  that  children  love  this  expression,  that  its 
practice  will  develop  ease  and  grace  in  bodily  movements.  If  the  gesture  language  is  natural 
it  can  be  made  to  re-enforce  oral  expression  and  the  general  awkwardness  of  the  typical  pupil 
in  part  overcome.  Keeping  the  language  a  secret  from  the  other  grades  will  greatly  enhance 
its  value  in  the  eyes  of  the  children. 

If  the  drilling  work  is  attempted  it  would  be  well  to  begin  with  shell,  slate,  or  other 
soft  material.  In  the  work  with  wild  edible  and  poisonous  plants  the  purpose  is  to  distinguish 
certainly  between  them  and  to  have  the  children  understand  the  danger  of  touching  or  eating 
certain  ones  to  be  found  in  every  locality.  It  the  teacher  is  not  a  botanist  she  should  make 
the  acquaintance  of  some  one  who  is  and  have  pointed  out  to  her  the  poisonous  forms  of  the 
locality,  in  order  that  she  may  safely  instruct  her  pupils.  Read  Hodge's  Nature  Study,  page 
106  to  IIQ,  and  write  to  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C.,  for  free 
copy  of  Chestnut's  "Thirty  Poisonous  Plants  of  the  U.  S.,"  Farmer's  Bulletin,  No.  86.  The 
tank  referred  to  for  work  with  the  boats  and  rafts  can  be  passed  from  grade  to  grade  and  used 
in  a  great  variety  of  ways.  The  method  of  burning  out  "dug  outs"  may  be  illustrated  by 
using  a  hot  wire  and  suggesting  how  hot  stones  might  be  used.  For  the  birch  bark  canoe, 
have  the  children  first  make  their  pattern  of  paper  before  attempting  to  cut  the  bark.  Use 
some  natural  gum  for  cementing  the  ends  together  and  reparing  breaks.  Sparks  may  easily 
be  procured  by  striking  two  pieces  of  chert  or  flint  together,  but  it  is  not  easy  to  get  a  fire 
from  them.  A  piece  of  dry  pine  rubbed  vigorously  in  a  groove  in  dry  wood  may  be  made  to 
char.  Children  may  produce  fire  by  means  of  a  fire-drill.  The  teacher  may  study  the  follow- 
ing papers  for  suggestions. 

Fire  Making  Apparatus  in  the  U.  S.  Nat.  Museum — Hough. 
Smithsonian  Rep.  for  1888,  pages  531  to  587. 

Methods  of  Fire  Making — Hough. 

Smithsonian  Rep.  U.  S.  Nat.  Museum  for  1890,  pages  395  to  409. 

Origins  of  Inventions — Mason,    pages  84  to  120. 

From  the  last  of  these  many  other  helpful  suggestions  may  be  obtained,  as  well  as  from 
Miss  Dopp's  "Early  Cave  Men,"  Rand,  McNally  and  Co..  Chicago.  The  moulds  for 
making  the  snow  bricks  consist  of  simple  frames  of  suitable  size  (say  18  x  12  x  8  inches,) 
with  a  hinge  at  one  corner  and  a  hook  at  the  opposite  one,  so  that  the  frame  may  be  readily 
opened  for  removing  the  brick  of  snow.  This  work  is  to  be  done  outside  of  school  hours  when 
the  snow  is  in  good  condition.  Let  the  house  be  large  enough  for  a  child  to  crawl  into. 

The  shadow-stick  is  simply  a  pointed,  wooden  peg,  8  to  10  inches  high,  set  perpendicu- 
larly upon  a  smooth  wooden  base.  It  is  to  be  placed  where  the  sun  can  reach  it  during 
school  hours  and  may  carry  a  string  and  be  used  as  a  sun-dial,  by  marking  the  shadow  at  the 

46 


ami  half  hours.  The  base  should  be  level  and  from  the  peg  should  be  drawn  the  north- 
south  line.  To  get  the  position  of  the  sun  in  the  heavens  the  length  of  the  shadow  of  the  peg 
is  to  be  noted  at  noon,  as  it  falls  upon  this  line.  It  is  not  desirable  to  take  up  with  children  of 
this  age  the  question  of  mean  solar  time,  or  of  standard  time.  The  principle  of  the  pendulum 
may  be  discovered  by  having  the  children  count  the  number  of  oscillations  in  a  minute.  Re- 
pent a  number  of  times  upon  different  days.  If  children  can  be  shown  now  that  one  beat 
allows  a  wheel  to  turn  one  notch  they  have  all  that  they  need  for  comprehending  modern 
methods  of  time  keeping.  This  work  is  not  called  for  in  this  stage  of  culture,  but  is  rendered 
desirable  because  of  the  environment  in  which  the  child  is  placed.  The  same  is  true  of  the 
thermometer.  For  the  work  upon  the  dandelion  see  Scott's  Nature  Study,  page  15  to  37. 
The  blue  prints  are  simple,  cheap  and  furnish  fascinating  work  for  children.  The  blue  print 
paper  may  be  secured  from  book  dealers  ordinarily,  or  dealers  in  photographic  supplies.  The 
objects  to  be  printed  are  pressed  to  render  them  flat,  laid  upon  the  special  paper  with  a  piece  of 
common  glass  over  them  and  placed  in  the  sun  for  a  few  minutes.  A  piece  of  firm  card  board 
for  the  back  is  desirable  and  the  glass  and  cardboard  may  be  held  firmly  together  with  spring 
clothes-pins.  After  exposure  .to  the  sun  the  prints  are  simply  washed  in  water  and  dried. 
Some  experimenting  will  be  necessary  in  order  to  find  hoxv  much  exposure  is  required.  (vSee 
Howe's  Systematic  Science  Teaching,  page  122).  The  following  books  and  special  articles 
will  contain  much  of  value  for  the  second  grade  teacher  who  desires  to  carry  out  the  above 
line  of  work.  For  work  upon  birds  and  silkworms  consult  the  first  grade  list.  For  references 
upon  primitive  life  see  list  upon  page  23. 

HELPFUL  LITERATURE. 

1.  Lange's  Handbook  of  Nature  Study — Outline  on  Dog,  page  94. 

2.  Longman's  Object  Lessons — Outline  on  Dog,  page  56.  . ; 

3.  Book  of  Cats  and  Dogs — Johonnot.     American  Book  Co  ,  1884. 

4.  Neighbors  with  Claws  and  Hoofs — Johounot.     American  Book  Co.,  1885. 

5.  Stories  of  Brave  Dogs — Carter.     The  Century  Co.,  1904. 

6.  Some  Useful  Animals — Monteith.     American  Book  Co.,  1903. 

7.  Habits  of  Animals — Ingersoll.     Interstate  Pub.  Co.,  1882. 

8.  Call  of  the  Wild — London.     Grosset  &  Dunlap,  1903. 

9.  Stories  from  Animal  Land— Chase.     Educational  Pub.  Co.,  1891. 

10.  Four-Footed  Americans — Wright.     The  Macmillan  Co.,  1898. 

11.  Wild  Animals  I  have  Known — Thompson.     Scribner's  Sons,  1898. 

12.  Elementary  Lessons  in  Zoology — Needham.     American  Book  Co.,  1895. 

13.  Lange's  Handbook  of  Nature  Stud)— Outline  on  Fish,  page  295. 

14.  Indian  Boyhood— Eastman.     McClure,  Phillips  &  Co.,  1902. 

15.  Gesture  Language— -Mallery.      ist.  Rep.  Bureau  of  Ethnology,  1879-80,  page  281. 

16.  Stories  of  Rocks  and  Minerals — Fairbanks.     Educational  Pub.  Co.,  ^903. 

17.  Studies  Among  the  Snow  Crystals— Bentley.     U.  S.  Weather  Bureau,  1902. 

18.  The  Children  of  the  Cold — Schwatka.     Educational  Pub.  Co.,  1899. 
19  The  Snow  Baby — Peary.     F.  A   Stokes  Co.,  1901. 

20.  Each  and  All-' Andrews.     Story  of  Agoonack.     Ginn  &.  Co.,  1894. 

21.  The  Book  of  Nature  Myths — Holbrook      Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co.,  1902. 

22.  How  to  Make  Baskets — White.     Doubleday,  Page  &  Co.,  1903. 

23.  Practical  and  Artistic  Basketry — Tinsley.     Kellogg  &  Co.,  1904. 

24.  Graded  Lessons  in  Hygiene — Krohn.     Appleton  &  Co  ,  1903 

25.  First  Studies  in  Plant  Life — Atkinson.     Ginn  &  Co..  1902. 

26.  Bird  Day  and  How  to  Prepare  for  it — Babcock.     Silver,  Burdett  &  Co.,  1901. 

27.  The  Mosquito — Howard.     See  also  Hodge's  Nature  Study,  page  64.     Nature  Study  Review,  Feb.  1907. 

28.  Language  through  Nature,  Literature  and  Art — Perdue  and  Griswold.     Rand,  McNally  iV  Co.,  1902. 

29.  All  the  Year  Round— Strong.     Ginn  &  Co..  1898  to  1905.     Spring,  Summer,  Autumn  and  Winter. 

30.  The  Hiawatha  Primer — Holbrook.     Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co.,  1898. 

31.  Robinson  Crusoe  or  Swiss  Family  Robinson. 

Third  Grade.     Pastoral  Phase.     Age  of  Flocks  and  Herds. 

CENTRAL  FALL  THOUGHT;— Protective  Covering  of  Plants  and  Animals. 

Horse  chestnut  or  buckeye  tree;  form,  size,  parts,  branching, 

bark,  twigs,  leaves,  fruit  and  buds. 
Show  children  how  to  read  the  story  of  a  twig  by  means 

of  leaf,  flower  and  bud  scars. 

Practice  with  twigs  from  other  trees. 

Make  a  special  study  of  the  protective  devices  of  the  nut, 

the  baby  tree  inside  the  nut  and  the  embryonic  flowers  and  leaves  in  the  buds. 

47 


Comparison  of  horse  chestnut  and  pine  to  discover  differences. 

Live  sheep  if  a  flock  can  be  visited;  otherwise  a  cleaned  skull, 

feet  from  butchers,  tanned  skin  with  wool,  raw  wool,  carded  wool 

and  good  pictures. 

Mountain  home  of  wild  sheep  and  protection  against  rain,  snow  and  cold. 

Food,  teeth,  legs,  feet,  means  of  defense  and  escape. 

Domestication  of  sheep  and  use  to  man   in   providing 

wool,  leather,  meat  and  tallow. 
Traits  of  shepherd  dog  and  his  assistance  in  caring  for  flocks. 

The  goat  and  the  chamois  by  means  of  pictures. 

The  cow  as  to  simple  structure,  food  and  habits  and  comparison  with  sheep. 
Uses  of  cow  to  man;  leather,  meat,  tallow,  milk,  butter, 

cheese,  hair,  horns,  hoofs. 

Comparison  of  cow  and  horse  and  its  use  in  caring  for  cattle. 
Life  on  the  great  sheep  and  cattle  ranches  of  the  west. 

Nomadic  life  required. 

Why  man  changed  from  a  hunter  to  a  shepherd  and  cow  boy. 
By  means  of  pictures  and  stories  the  deer,  antelope,  bison,  camel,  giraffe  and  reindeer. 

Reeling  of  silk  from  cocoons  of  silk  moth. 
Study  of  raw  cotton  bolls  and  relation  of  fibers  to  seeds. 

Flax   and   its   fiber. 

Compare  fibers  of  wool,  silk,  cotton  and  flax. 
Feathers  and  their  value  as  a  protective  covering. 

CENTRAL  WINTER    THOUGHT;— Man's  Preparation  for  Winter  by  Clothing  and 
Footwear. 

Simple  experiments  to  show  that  heat  and  cold  are  not  felt  through 

pads  of  wool,  silk,  cotton  and  linen.     Same  for  leather. 

Suitability  for  clothing  and  advantages  over  skins  and  furs. 

Cleaning  and  carding  of  wool.     Hand  spinning  to  illustrate  process. 

The  use  of  the  distaff  and  spindle  in  spinning. 
If  possible  show  a  spinning-wheel  in  operation. 

Illustrate  the  spinning  of  cotton  and  flax  fiber. 

Upon  simple  hand  looms  have  children  weave  yarn,  silk,  cotton  or  linen  thread. 
Have  children  take  to  pieces  various  types  of  thread  and  cloth. 

Simple  accounts  of  their  manufacture. 

The  dyeing  of  fabrics  by  horse-chestnut  bark  and  "Diamond  dyes." 
If  it  is  desired  to  teach  sewing,  simple  articles  of  clothing  may  be  made. 

The  use  of  shoe  and  boot  compared  with  the  moccasin. 

If  feasible  visit  the  shoemaker.     His  materials  and  tools. 

Exhibit  a  pair  of  wooden  shoes  and  consider  advantages  and  disadvantages. 

Have  a  miniature  pair  carved  from  horse  chestnut  wood. 
Further  study  of  the  skin  as  Nature's  protective  covering. 

Danger  from  wet  clothing  and  wet  feet. 
The  skin  as  a  respiratory  and  excretory  organ. 

Necessity  for  keeping  pores  open. 

Necessity  for  and  proper  times  for  bathing. 

Danger  of  bathing  when  body  is  too  warm.     "Cramps." 

Test  various  fabrics  as  to   their  ability  to  absorb  moisture. 

Test  inflammability  of  wool,  silk,  cotton  and  linen.     Give  needed  warning. 

Primitive  and  modern  umbrellas. 

Source  and  properties  of  India  rubber  and  its  use  to  protect  body  and  feet. 

Let  children  design  a  tent  in  paper  and  then  make  from  muslin,  linen  or  silk. 

The  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  the  tent  when  compared  with  tepee. 

Occasional  winter  observations  upon  horse  chestnut  tree. 
Work  of  frost  upon  bottles  of  water,  pipes,  rocks  and  lumps  of  soil. 

48 


. 


CENTRAL  SPRING  THOUGHT;-Natufe  the  Source  of  all  Supply. 

Call  attention  to  the  fact  that  all  the  animals  studied  in  the  fall 

derive  their  sustenance  from  vegetation. 

Man's  dependance  upon  the  soil  for  all  materials  supplied  by  animals. 

What  plant  products  so  far  studied  have  come  directly  from  the  soil? 

Work  out  experimentally  that  moisture,  warmth  and  air  are  necessary  for  germination. 

Find  also  whether  the  dark  and  soil  are  also  necessary. 
Count  the  number  of  seeds  in  a  small  cup  or  can  before  and  after  soaking. 

Simple  studies  upon  the  origin  of  soils  from  rock  fragments. 

Collect  and  study  the  four  important  types;  sand,  clay,  loam  and  muck. 

Absorption  and  retention  of  moisture  by  these  varieties  of  soil. 

Have  a  simple  rain-gauge  made  and  measure  rainfall. 
Make  a  small  "hot  bed,"  compare  temperatures  inside  and  outside, 

explain  principle  and  start  seeds  for  garden. 
Importance  of  rain,  sun  and  soil  in  growth  of  plants. 

Compare  our  own  with  desert  regions. 
Indoor  germination  of  seeds  for  garden  with  more  or  less  detailed  study. 

Seed  testing  experiments  between  moist  blotting-paper. 
Collect  horse-chestnuts  that  have  wintered  out-doors  and  are  bursting  open, 

plant  in  rich  soil  and  care  for  until  Arbor-day. 
Have  children  select  various  nuts  and  fruit  .seeds  for  germination. 
Gardening  with  each  an  individual  bed  and  some  few  in  common. 

Importance  of  cultivation  and  keeping  down  of  weeds. 
Simple  study  of  the  earthworm  as  a  friend  of  the  gardener. 
Animal  enemies  in  the  garden,  transferred  to  the  school-room,  fed, 

and  development  carefully  observed. 

The  habits  and  damage  to  furs  and  woolens  by  the  clothes  moth. 
Importance  to  the  farmer,  gardener  and  fruit  grower  of  birds  and  bats. 

Establish  a  bird  hospital  for  birds  too  early  out  of  the  nest. 

Make  each  child  feel  responsible  for  the  protection  of  helpless  birds  against  cats  and  boys. 
Collect  toads  for  the  garden  and  emphasize  their  importance. 

Flowers  of  horse  chestnut  and  pine  compared. 
Arrange  to  have  garden  cared  for  during  summer  vacation. 

SUGGESTIONS  TO  THIRD  GRADE  TEACHER. 

The  chief  purpose  of  the  Nature  work  of  this  grade  is  to  get  the  child  sympathetically 
interested  in  animals  and  plants,  to  show  him  their  need  for  protective  coverings  against  the 
winter's  cold  and  to  acquaint  him  with  the  raw  materials  from  which  he  may  select  those  re- 
quired for  his  own  protection.  During  the  first  two  years  the  child's  interest  has  centered 
about  the  primitive  type  of  home  and  the  simple  maintenance  of  life  in  field  and  forest.  Ani- 
mals have  been  viewed  only  as  enemies  to  be  disposed  of,  or  as  the  source  of  those  materials 
required  for  his  immediate  existence.  If  this  life  has  been  lived  to  the  full  the  interest  of  the 
child  may  now  be  diverted  towards  domesticated  animals  and  they  become  the  object 
of  his  solicitude  and  care.  If  this  phase  of  the  Nature  work  is  omitted,  and  a  substitute 
not  provided  in  the  home,  the  savage  nature  is  longer  retained  and  loses  but  little  in 
its  intensity.  If  the  work  is  successfully  presented  the  child  loses  his  pleasure  in  the  wanton 
taking  of  life  and  more  humane  feelings  towards  animals  and  mankind  are  started.  We  need 
not  be  surprised  if  these  seeds  are  slow  in  developing  and  the  fruit  long  delayed.  The  mak- 
ing over  of  an  individual  is  no  simple  task. 

The  horse  chestnut  is  selected  as  a  type  because  of  its  availability  throughout  the  northern 
states,  because  of  its  beauty  and  the  interest  which  attaches  to  all  its  parts.  Some  other  tree 
may  be  substituted  until  a  small  group  of  these  can  be  started  about  the  school  grounds,  either 
from  the  nuts  or  by  transplanting.  A  cleaned  sheep  skull  and  fragments  of  jaws  of  a  cow  and 
horse  may  usually  be  obtained  from  the  fields.  The  teacher  should  acquaint  herself  with  the 
habits  of  domesticated  sheep  and  the  play  of  the  lambs  and  interpret  in  the  light  of  their  wild 
ancestry.  Have  children  fully  appreciate  the  special  characteristics  of  the  shepherd  dog  and 

49 


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his  wonderful  intelligence.  If  there  is  a  pet  goat  in  the  neighborhood  try  to  have  him  visit 
the  grade.  Bring  out  strongly  the  great  importance  of  the  cow  to  man  and  the  use  of  the 
horse  in  caring  for  them  upon  the  great  plains  of  the  west.  The  importance  of  the  reindeer 
to  the  people  of  northern  Europe  and  Asia  and  of  the  camel  to  the  "children  of  the  desert." 
Cocoons  for  the  reeling  of  silk  may  be  purchased  from  the  Nonotuck  Silk  Co. ,  Florence,  Mass. 
Small  hand  reels  are  easily  made  from  wooden  circles,  connected  with  stiff  wires  and  having 
an  axis  on  some  suitable  support.  Instead  of  a  crank  twirl  the  axis  in  the  fingers.  They  may 
be  made  at  the  tinsmith's  at  small  expense.  Remove  the  floss  from  the  dry  cocoons,  soak  for 
two  or  three  minutes  in  boiling  water  to  soften  the  cement  and  begin  pulling  off  the  silk  until 
you  come  to  a  single  thread  which  is  then  looped  over  the  reel.  If  the  cocoons  are  not  soaked 
long  enough  the  thread  will  break;  if  too  long  the  cocoons  become  flabby  and  the  silk  comes 
off  in  layers.  Very  attractive  exhibits  of  spun  silk  may  be  obtained  gratuitously  from  Cheney 
Brothers,  South  Manchester,  Mass.  Cotton  seeds  and  bolls  may  be  obtained  from  Mrs.  A.  G. 
Helmer,  of  Helmer,  Georgia.  If  flax  is  not  grown  in  the  neighborhood  a  small  bed  of  it  may 
be  raised  in  the  school  garden,  along  with  the  cotton.  The  main  purpose  of  introducing  the 
various  processes  connected  with  the  manufacture  of  clothing  is  for  illustration,  rather  than 
the  acquiring  of  skill  in  the  doing.  Have  the  children  do  their  best,  however,  and  get  credit- 
able results  as  far  as  possible. 

The  methods  of  twisting  fibrous  materials  into  thread  by  means  of  the  fingers  can  be  very 
simply  shown  and  the  advantages  and  simple  methods  of  carding  be  understood.  The 
Elementary  School  Record  (University  of  Chicago  Press)  No.  3,  on  Textiles,  gives  a  simple 
and  helpful  discussion  of  the  spinning  by  means  of  the  distaff  and  spindle  of  the  children's  own 
manufacture.  The  school  should  posses  an  old  spinning-wheel  and  some  individual  may  still 
be  found  in  most  communities  who  knows  how  to  run  it.  Small  hand  looms  may  be  made 
from  old  slate  frames,  by  driving  a  row  of  small  nails  across  either  end  to  hold  the  warp.  Let 
children  make  a  simple  design  for  a  doll's  blanket,  mat  or  shawl  and  then  execute  it  in  yarn. 
A  more  elaborate  type  of  loom,  of  which  it  would  be  well  to  have  a  working  model  in  the 
school-room,  is  figured  and  described  in  Black  and  Carter's  Natural  History  Lessons.  This 
will  prepare  the  way  for  an  understanding  of  how  the  weaving  is  extensively  carried  on  to-day 
by  means  of  complicated  machinery.  In  connection  with  the  idea  of  clothing  the  child  is 
led  to  see  that  it  is  in  itself  not  warming,  but  simply  prevents  the  heat  of  the  body  from  escap- 
ing. The  idea  if  not  the  name  "poor  conductor"  is  to  be  learned.  A  block  of  ice  is  wrapped 
up  in  a  blanket  in  the  summer  time  to  preserve  it.  Crude  iudia  rubber  may  be  obtained  from 
the  larger  manufacturers  of  rubber  goods.  In  the  early  fall  the  behavior  of  a  drop  of  milk  from 
the  milkweed  stem,  when  placed  between  the  thumb  and  finger  may  be  observed.  As  it  dries 
it  assumes  much  the  appearance  of  genuine  rubber.  Experiment  with  a  larger  quantity. 

A  little  previous  knowledge  of  the  properties,  history  and  location  in  the  neighborhood  of 
the  typical  soils  will  be  found  necessary  for  the  successful  presentation  of  the  early  spring 
work.  Consult  some  of  the  references  given  below.  This  work  must  be  decidedly  practical 
in  order  to  hold  the  interest  of  the  children.  A  funnel  and  a  bottle  will  serve  as  a  rain-gauge, 
the  water  for  measurement  being  poured  into  a  cylindrical  vessel  the  area  of  whose  cross- 
section  is  equal  to  a  certain  simple  part  of  the  area  of  the  larger  opening  of  the  funnel,  say  one- 
tenth.  A  crude  but  satisfactory  guage  may  be  made  at  the  tinners.  It  should  be  exposed  so 
as  not  to  be  sheltered  by  trees  or  buildings  and  should  at  the  same  time  be  quite  accessible  to 
the  children.  In  the  seed  testing  a  certain  number  of  seeds,  from  one  to  one  hundred,  may  be 
counted  out  for  the  children,  depending  upon  their  size  and  the  quantity  on  hand.  The  seeds 
are  given  favorable  conditions  for  germination  and  the  results  carefully  noted  and  tabulated. 
In  the  late  spring  the  larvae  of  the  clothes  moth  may  be  collected  in  the  homes,  brought  to 
school  in  bottles  and  fed  upon  small  bits  of  woolen  goods.  A  knowledge  of  their  destructive- 
ness  to  clothing  and  sly  habits  should  be  taught  and  methods  of  preventing  their  development 
in  the  home  understood.  (See  Hodge's  Nature  Study,  page  71).  If  the  teacher  desires  some 
interesting  observations  may  be  made  upon  the  spider  as  a  type  of  spinning  insect.  Their 
work  may  be  observed  both  out  doors  and  in  the  school-room  in  cages  or  jars.  Try  the 
experiment  described  upon  page  420  of  Hodge's  book  to  show  the  intelligence  of  the  spider. 
Series  of  pictures  should  be  secured  from  various  sources  to  illustrate  the  principal  topics. 
The  stereoscope  may  be  used  to  very  excellent  advantage  if  sets  of  views  can  be  procured, 
such  as  those  illustrating  cattle  and  sheep  raising,  the  rearing  of  silkworms,  the  growth  of 

50 


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cotton,  the  production  of  cloth,  etc.  Write  to  the  Keystone  View  Co  ,  Meadvilie,  Penn.,  for 
catalogue  and  prices.  Sets  of  views  may  be  gradually  gotten  together  illustrating  the  work 
of  each  grade  and  the  instruments  passed  from  grade  to  grade  as  they  are  needed.  Upon 
pieces  of  heavy  cardboard  arrange  collections  to  show  in  various  stages  of  manufacture  wool, 
silk,  cotton  and  linen,  obtaining  the  materials  from  the  various  manufacturers.  Wool  and 
woolen  cloth  in  various  stages  of  manufacture  may  be  secured  from  the  Clinton  Woolen  Mills, 
Clinton,  Mich.  Similar  collections  to  show  the  stages  in  the  manufacture  of  thread  and 
needles  will  prove  of  value  and  interest.  These  may  be  obtained  from  J.  and  P.  Coats,  the 
Spool  Cotton  Co.,  N.  Y.  City. 

The  spring  work  is  calculated  to  get  the  child  interested  in  the  agricultural  work  strongly 
recommended  for  the  fourth  grade  and  is  preparatory  to  this.  Small  beds  that  are  worked  in 
common  should  be  laid  out  in  the  school  garden  and  planted  with  corn,  wheat,  oats,  rye, 
barley,  buckwheat,  potatoes,  flax  and  cotton.  Individual  beds  may  also  be  assigned  to  each 
pupil,  providing  there  is  sufficient  ground  available  and  the  following  plants  grown  from  the 
seed  for  the  use  of  the  same  pupils  in  the  fall  work  of  the  fourth  grade: — turnips,  kohlrabi, 
cabbage,  brussels'  sprouts,  kale,  cauliflower,  beets,  onions,  radishes,  parsnips  and  carrots. 
If  the  individual  beds  must  be  small  these  vegetables  may  be  distributed.  A  bed  of  peanuts 
will  prove  of  interest  and  one  of  sweet  potatoes  may  well  be  added.  One  corner  of  the  garden 
or  of  the  school  grounds  might  be  set  apart  as  a  nursery  for  fruit  and  nut  trees,  including  the 
horse  chestnut.  The  young  trees  should  be  labeled,  carefully  cared  for  and  eventually  set 
out  about  the  sohool  grounds  and  homes  of  the  children.  Children  can  not  be  depended  upon 
to  properly  care  for  the  garden  during  the  summer  vacation  although  they  should  be  en- 
couraged to  give  it  some  attention.  The  school  board  should  be  importuned  to  make  this  a 
part  of  the  regular  duty  of  the  janitor  of  the  building,  even  if  he  is  employed  only  during  the 
school  months  of  the  year. 

If  the  children  do  not  appear  to  have  grown  tired  of  the  daily  weather  observations  of 
the  first  two  grades  they  may  be  continued  and  extended.  The  use  of  the  colored  circles  has 
probably  served  its  purpose  and  may  be  dropped  unless  demanded  by  the  interest  of  the 
pupils.  The  curve  to  show  graphically  the  rise  and  fall  of  the  temperature,  begun  in  the 
spring  of  the  preceding  grade,  may  be  continued  to  advantage  throughout  the  third  grade. 
These  charts  may  be  made  upon  heavy  manilla  paper,  with  narrow  vertical  columns  for  the 
days  of  the  month  and  a  simple  design  of  the  thermometer  scale  at  the  left  hand  margin. 
The  rainfall  and  snowfall  may  be  measured  and  placed  upon  the  chart  according  to  some 
simple  scale,  ten  inches  of  snow  being  regarded  as  equal  to  one  inch  of  rain.  The  charts 
should  be  dated  and  preserved  and  as  they  accumulate  those  for  the  corresponding  months  of 
previous  years  displayed  for,  purposes  of  comparison.  Note  the  connection  between  changes 
in  temperature  and  precipitation.  Since  pastoral  man  in  caring  for  his  flocks  at  night  had 
unusual  opportunity  for  studying  the  stars,  a  few  simple  constellations  may  be  taught  the 
children  at  this  stage. 

HELPFUL  LITERATURE. 

1.  Nature  Study  and  Life — Hodge.     Outlines  and  many  helpful  suggestions. 

2.  Longman's  Object  Lessons— Salmon  and  Woodhull.     Outlines. 

3.  Handbook  of  Nature  Study— Lange.     Outlines. 

4.  Nature  Study — Jackman.    Skin,  p.  102;  earthworm,  p.  303;  soils,  pp.  390  and  436;  meteorological  and 

astronomical  suggestions  throughout. 

5.  Domesticated  Animals — Shater.    Scribner's  Sons,  1895. 

6.  The  Horse— Flower.    Appleton  &  Co.,  1901. 

7.  Black  Beauty — Sewell.     Varidus  publishers. 

8.  Four-Footed  Americans — Wright.     Macmillan  &  Co. 

9.  Wild  Animals  I  have  Knowttr'-Seton-Thompspn.     Scribner's  Sons,  1900. 

10.  Lives  of  the  Hunted — Seton-T.hompson.     Scribner's  Sons,  1901.    Krag,  the  Kootenay  Ram. 

11.  The  Play  of  Animals — Groos-Baldwin.     Appleton  &  Co.,  1898. 

12.  Stories  of  Silk  and  Wool — BriWn   &  Mayne.     World's  Events  Pub.  Co.,  1905-6. 

13.  Silk,  its  Origin,  Culture  and  Bianufacture.     Nonotuck  Silk  Co.,  1902. 

14.  Short  Description  of  Silk  and' Silk  Manufacture— Cheney  Bros. 

15.  Silkworm  Culture— Kelly.     Farmers' Bulletin  No.  165. 

16.  Hand-Loom  Weaving— Todd.     Rand,  McNally  &  Co.,  1902. 

17.  Natural  History  Lessons— Black  &  Carter.     Holt  &  Co.,  1892. 

1 8.  The  Cotton  Plant— True.     U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  1896. 

19.     Yearbook  of  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  for  1903.    Cotton,  Silk,  Corn. 

51 


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ao.  The  Story  of  the  Cotton  Plant— Wilkinson.     Appleton  &  Co.,  1901. 

21.  The  Story  of  Cotton — Brown.     Owen  Publishing  Co.,  1905. 

22.  Manual  of  Hygiene — Bissell.     Baker  &  Taylor  Co.,  1904. 

23.  Notes  on  the  Frost — Farmer's  Bulletin  No.  104. 

24.  The  Soil — King.     Macmillan  &  Co.,  1895. 

25.  Town  Geology — Kingsley.     Appleton  &  Co.,  1890. 

26.  Stories  of  Starland — Proctor.     Potter  &  Putnam,  1898. 

27.  The  Stars  in  Song  and  Legend — Porter.     Ginn  &  Co.,  1901. 

28.  First  Studies  in  Plant  Life — Atkinson.     Ginn  &  Co.,  1902. 

29.  Seed  Babies — Morley.     Ginn  &  Co.,  1901. 

30.  Agriculture  for  Beginners — Burkett,  Stevens  &  Hill.     Ginn  &  Co.,  1903. 

31.  Practical  Agriculture — James.     Appleton  &  Co.,  1900. 

32.  First  Principles  of  Agriculture — Goff  &  Mayne.     American  Book  Co.,  1904. 

33.  Principles  of  Agriculture — Bailey.     Macmillan  &  Co.,  1902. 

34.  Children's  Gardens — Miller.     Appleton  &  Co.,  1904. 

35.  School  Gardens  and  Elementary  Agriculture — Superintendent  Public  Instruction,  Lansing,   Mich.,    1904. 

36.  How  to  Make  School  Gardens — Hemenway.     Doubleday,  Page  &  Co.,  1903. 

37.  The  Vegetable  Garden — Greathouse.     Farmer's  Bulletin  No.  94. 

38.  A  Reader  in  Botany— Newell.     Pt.  I.,  Ginn  &  Co.,  1895. 

39.  From  Seed  to  Leaf — Newell.     Ginn  &  Co.,  1892. 

40.  Vegetable  Mould  and  Earthworms — Darwin.     Appleton  &  Co.,  1882. 

41.  The  Insect  World— Weed.     Appleton  &  Co.,  1899. 

42.  Injurious  Insects  of  the  Farm  and  Garden — Treat.     Orange,  Judd  Co.,  1882. 

43.  Insects  Injurious  to  Vegetation — Harris.     Orange,  Judd  Co.,  1890 

44.  Insects  of  the  Garden — Pettit.     Michigan  Agricultural  College,  1905. 

45.  Tenants  of  an  Old  Farm — McCook.     Jacobs. 

46.  Spiders,  their  Structure  and  Habits — Emerton.     Cassino  &  Co.,  1883. 

52 


CHAPTER  VIL-lNTERflEDIATE  COURSE  OF  STUDY. 


"Spacious  and  fair  is  the  world;  yet  oh  !  how  I  thank  a  kind  heaven, 
That  I  a  garden  possess,  small  though  it  be,  yet  mine  own. 

One  which  enticeth  me  homewards;  why  should  a  gardener  wander  ? 
Honor  and  pleasure  he  finds,  when  to  his  garden  he  looks." — Goethe. 


Fourth  Grade.     Agricultural  Phase.     Age  of  Cultivated  Plants. 

CENTRAL  FALL  THOUGHT;— Storage  of  Food  by  Animals,  Plants  and  Man. 

Live    rabbits   in   school-room,  or  on  grounds;  structure,  habits,  food,  enemies,  adaptation. 

Failure  to  store  food  and  consequent  disadvantages. 
Beets,  carrots,  turnips,  kohlrabi,  cabbage,  parsnips  from  children's  garden. 

Plant  storage  in  root,  leaf  and  stem. 
Utilization  of  this  food  by  rabbit,  other  animals  and  man. 

Methods  and  reasons  for  cooking  vegetables. 
Pet  squirrel  in  school-room,  or  on  grounds,  if  procurable. 
Comparison  with  the  rabbit  as  to  structure,  habits,  food,  enemies. 
Find  reasons  for  differences  between  rabbit  and  squirrel. 
Homes  of  squirrels,  storage  of  food  and  advantages. 

Study  of  oak,  hickory  and  walnut. 
Storage  of  food  in  nuts  and  utilization  by  squirrel  and  man. 

Varieties  of  squirrels  and  rabbits  by  pictures  and  stories. 
Other  gnawers  as;  beavers,  ground-hogs,  muskrats,  prairie-dogs,  mice,  rats,  etc. 

Comparison  of  teeth  of  cat,  dog,  sheep,  gnawers  and  man. 
Corn,  wheat,  oats,  rye,  barley  and  buckwheat  from  children's  gardens. 
Gathering  and  threshing  of  grains  illustrated  by  the  hands. 
Use  of  knife,  sickle,  scythe,  reaper  and  binder  by  pictures. 

Storage  of  the  white  powder  (starch)  in  grains. 
Physical  properties  of  starch  and  test  with  dilute  iodine  solution. 

Manufacture  starch  from  potatoes. 

Thanksgiving  Theme: — Food.     Have  children  collect  and  distribute  to  nejedy. 

Before  weather  is  too  cold  arrange  some  beds  of  bulbous  plants  for  spring; 

tulips,  daffodils,  hyacinths,  snowdrops,  crocus,  June  lilies,  etc. 

CENTRAL  WINTER  THOUGHT;— Use  of  Stored  Vegetable  Food  in  the  Home. 

Why  the  growing  of  vegetables  and  grains  required  a  settled  life. 
Opportunities  afforded  for  a  better  and  larger  home. 
Have  the  children  unite  in  the  construction  of  a  log  cabin. 
Mould  from  clay  small  bricks  and  allow  to  dry. 

From  these  bricks  construct  an  adobe  house. 
Stand  some  of  these  dry  bricks  in  water  and  observe  effect. 

Thoroughly  dry  some  bricks  and  heat  intensely  in  a  furnace  or  anthracite  $tove. 
Stand  these  "burned  brick"  in  water  and  observe. 
The  making,  drying  and  burning  of  household  pottery. 
In  small  vials,  one  for  each  child,  dissolve  in  water  some  sugar  or  salt.     Taste. 

Using  a  glass  funnel  and  filter-paper  filter  a  solution  of  the  same  and  taste. 
Evaporate  water,  condense  some  of  the  vapor  for  tasting  and  recover  substance  dissolved. 

Try  to  dissolve  starch  in  cold  water,  filter  and  test  with  iodine. 
Boil  a  little  starch  in  water,  filter  and  test  for  starch.     Conclusions  ? 

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Test  a  large  variety  of  food  substances  for  starch  and  prepare  lists. 

Bring  out  necessity  of  cooking  starchy  foods. 
Primitive  boiling  and  baking  illustrated  with  hot  stones. 
Mirror  the  life  of  pioneer  days  and  of  frontier  life  to-day. 

Boil  for  a  few  minutes  in  similar  vessels  and  the  same  amount  of  water  100  sound  kernels  of 
corn  and  100  cracked  kernels.     Filter  the  water  from  each  and  test  for  starch. 

Necessity  for  cracking,  or  grinding,  starchy  grains. 
Selection  of  suitable  stones  by  children  for  this  purpose. 
Let  each  child  design  and  mould  in  clay  a  hand  mill. 
The  evolution  of  milling  by  pictures  and  stories. 

Visit  to  the  flouring  mill. 

Bread  making  in  school,  at  home  and  at  the  bakery. 
The  teeth  as  a  mill;  variety  of  shapes,  uses  and  care. 

Hygiene  of  eating. 

The  harm  of  stimulants  and  narcotics. 

Typhoid,  consumption  and  diphtheria  in  water,  milk  or  other  food. 
Condemn  and  abolish  in  the  school-room  the  common  drinking  cup,  pencils  in  common  and 

the  slate  and  sponge. 

Bring  out  clearly  the  especial   need   of   sanitary   precautions   about   a   fixed   home   as 
compared  with  a  temporary  one. 
Sanitation  of  vegetable  cellars. 

CENTRAL  SPRING  THOUGHT;— Use  of  their  Stored  Food  by  Plants. 

Germination  of  corn,  wheat,  barley,  buckwheat,  etc.,  in  late  February,  in  moist  sawdust  or 

upon  clean  blotting  paper. 

Have  children  discover  the  loss  of  starch  in  the  seed. 
Pinch  off  the  kernel  of  corn  and  chew  the  stem.      Conclusion  ? 
This  sweet  substance  (sugar)  could  have  come  only  from  the  starch. 
Elicit  the  reason  for  this  change,  recalling  previous  experiments. 
When  the  season  is  sufficiently  advanced  tap  some  hard  maple  trees,  collect  sap  and 

boil  down  to  syrup  and  sugar. 
Split  some  maple  twigs  and  test  with  iodine. 
Elicit  probable  source  of  the  sugar,  the  reason  for  the  change  and  what  the  tree  intends  to  do 

with  sugar. 

From  pictures  and  stories  describe  a  "sugar  bush."     Visit  one  if  practicable. 
Soak  a  supply  of  barley  and  when  starting  to  grow  kill  with  a  dry  heat  which  is 

not  sufficient  to  burn.     This  is  malt. 

Have  children  chew  a  few  grains  before  and  after  germination. 
Get  a  supply  of  ground  malt,  soak  in  warm  water,  filter  and  evaporate. 

This  is  malt  sugar,  or  "maltose." 
Fill   fruit  jars  even  full  of  "culture  fluid,"  cover  with  mosquito  netting,  on   which   place 

germinating  corn  or  peas. 
Prepare  others  similarly  but  use  rain  water.     Account  for  results  and  develop  uses  of 

root  to  feed  plant  and  hold  it  in  position. 
Study  flowers  of  soft  maple  and  later  of  the  hard  maple. 

Development  of  flowers  into  seeds. 

Love  of  bees  for  the  soft  maple,  gathering  and  distribution  of  pollen. 
Place  in  suitable  vessels  of  water  specimens  of   carrot,    turnip,    parsnip,    beet   and   kohlrabi, 

preferably  those  raised  by  the  children. 
Their  use  of  stored  food  leading  to  growth,  flower  and  seed. 
The  purpose  of  the  first  year's  growth  and  storage  is  now  apparent. 
Carefully  take  up  early  weeds   as  dandelion,  mullein,  thistle  and  burdock,  note 

food  in  root  and  consider  advantages. 

Sprouting  of  Irish  potatoes  which  do  not  need  to  be  placed  in  water. 
Place  sweet  potatoes  (not  killed  by  heat)  in  bottles  and  secure  a  vine. 

Collect  acorns,  walnuts  and  hickory  nuts  that  have  wintered   out   doors  and   continue   their 

germination  in  moist  sawdust. 

54 


. 
booH  bsiot2  - 


Their  use  of  stored  food. 
Place  in  window  boxes,  watch  growth  and  later  give  a  place  in  the  garden. 

For  arbor  day  set  out  maples  and  nut  tiees. 
In  the  garden  set  out  turnips,  kohlrabi,  parsnips,  carrots  and  beets  in  order  to 

get  the  flowers  and  seeds. 

Bulbous  plants  to  illustrate  use  of  stored  food,  planted  in  the  fall. 
Lessons  in  transplanting,  cultivating  and  fertilizing  soil. 

Individual  flower-beds  giving  freedom  of  choice. 
Competitive  flower  rearing  with  dwarf  nasturtium. 
Experiments  and  observations  of  same  plant  growing  in  various  soils. 
Compare  ripe  and  unripe  fruits  with  reference  to  presence  of  starch  and  sugar. 

Danger  from  unripe  fruits. 

Action  of  saliva  on  starch  and  necessity  for  thorough  mastication. 
Suspend  a  large  moist  sponge  and  sprinkle  over  it  a  liberal  supply  of  flax  seed. 

SUGGESTIONS  TO  FOURTH  GRADE  TEACHER. 

Domesticated  hares  and  rabbits  are  now  so  common  that  no  special  difficulty  will  be 
encountered  in  having  a  live  specimen  at  school.  A  pet  squirrel  will  be  more  difficult  to  find, 
and  if  it  can  not  be  secured  a  good  mounted  specimen,  (Ward's  Natural  Science  Establish- 
ment, Rochester,  N.  Y.)  should  be  provided.  These  two  related  forms  are  taken  for  the 
purpose  of  showing  the  advantage  that  comes  to  the  individual  from  the  storage  of  food.  The 
most  interesting  work  for  the  child  will  center  around  the  differences  of  habits,  size,  structure 
and  enemies,  arising  from  the  fact  that  one  digs  its  coarse,  innutritions  food  from  the  ground 
and  the  other  gets  its  rich,  oily  food  from  the  trees.  A  collection  of  pictures  will  be  needed 
in  order  to  present  the  varieties  of  rabbits  and  squirrels  and  other  gnawing  animals.  As 
many  skulls  to  show  the  teeth  should  be  provided  as  is  feasible.  These  may  be  prepared  by 
removing  the  skin  and  flesh  and  placing  the  fkull  in  an  ant-hill  for  cleaning.  Get  a  collection 
of  nuts  of  various  kinds  that  have  been  opened  by  red  squirrels.  From  the  wood  yard  speci- 
mens of  squirrels'  homes  may  often  be  procured. 

In  taking  up  the  grains  in  the  fall  the  entire  plants  should  first  be  studied.  If  permitted, 
the  children  will  discover  the  essential  physical  properties  of  starch  stored  away  in  the  grains. 
The  iodine  solution  for  the  recognition  of  starch  is  very  easily  prepared  by  dropping  into  water 
a  few  scales  of  the  solid  iodine  obtained  from  the  drug-store.  It  should  be  strong  enough  to 
give  the  rich  blue  or  purple  color  and  not  so  deep  as  to  appear  black.  Several  small  bottles 
of  the  solution,  with  medicine  droppers,  should  be  provided.  To  separate  starch  from  the 
potato,  cut  into  fine  bits,  shake  in  water  and  while  the  water  is  milky  pour  off  and  allow  to 
settle.  Pour  off  the  excess  of  water  without  disturbing  the  starch  and  repeat  as  often  as 
desired.  Finally  allow  the  last  of  the  water  to  evaporate  so  as  to  get  the  dry  starch.  The 
winter  experiments  are  for  the  purpose  of  showing  that  starch  will  not  dissolve  in  cold  water, 
but  will  do  so  in  hot  water.  The  filter  paper  may  be  procured  from  the  chemical  laboratory 
or  the  drug- store  and  is  used  to  separate  the  undissolved  granules  before  testing.  An  oppor- 
tunity is  afforded  for  developing  simple  phases  of  domestic  science  work  from  the  Nature 
work,  or  where  this  is  not  desired,  of  illustrating  these  processes  in  the  school-room. 

Suitable  twigs  for  the  log-cabin  and  a  supply  of  clay  for  the  adobe  house  should  be  laid 
in  during  the  fall.  A  mould  for  the  bricks  should  first  be  made,  holding,  say  a  half  dozen, 
moistened  and  sprinkled  with  sand  each  time  to  keep  the  bricks  from  sticking.  A  thatched 
roof  of  grasses  may  be  provided  for  the  adobe  house  and  one  of  bark  or  split  twigs  for  the  log 
house.  The  children  will  be  able  to  design  and  make  pieces  of  pottery  without  any  instruction 
quite  as  good  as  primitive  man  was  first  able  to  make.  If  the  teacher  is  at  all  enterprising 
she  can  readily  learn  and  teach  the  simple  methods  used  by  the  lower  races  today.  If  thor- 
oughly dried  the  smaller  pieces  may  be  burned  in  furnaces  and  anthracite  stoves,  while  the 
larger  pieces  may  have  fires  built  in  and  around  them  upon  the  school  grounds.  Save  the 
best  pieces  for  the  school  collection  and  try  to  secure  specimens  of  Indian  pottery  for  compar- 
ison. In  modelling  the  hand  mills  from  clay  care  should  be  taken  that  the  children  do  not 
see  the  actual  utensils  used  by  primitive  man  until  their  own  work  has  been  done,  when  the 
real  stone  implements  may  be  exhibited  and  studied. 

55 


• 
• 


The  purpose  of  the  spring  work  is  to  lead  the  child  to  See  that  the  rriaterial  stored  by  the 
plant  during  the  first  season's  growth,  which  was  appropriated  by  animals  and  man,  was 
either  for  the  plant's  own  use  during  the  second  season  or  for  the  next  generation.  Starch 
being  insoluble  in  cold  water  it  is  very  generally  converted  into  sugar,  so  very  soluble,  in 
order  that  it  may  be  transported  through  the  various  tissues  to  the  place  where  it  is  needed 
for  plant  growth.  After  a  moderate  amount  of  maple  sap  has  been  collected  have  the  child- 
ren close  the  holes  perfectly  with  corks,  or  wooden  plugs,  in  order  that  the  tree  may  not 
"bleed".  Ground  malt  may  be  procured  from  a  malt  house,  or  brewery,  sending  away  for  it  if 
necessary.  One  supply  will  last  for  several  years.  The  malt  sugar  does  not  readily  grain 
but  the  wax-like  form  may  be  readily  secured  by  the  method  indicated  in  the  outline.  A 
small  supply  of  maltose  may  be  purchased  from  Eberbach  &  Son,  Druggists,  Ann  Arbor, 
Mich.  Educational  exhibits  of  flour  and  other  food  products  made  from  wheat  may  be  secur- 
ed without  cost  from  the  Pillsbury  Milling  Co.,  Minneapolis,  Minn.  Tablets  for  making  the 
"culture  fluid"  may  be  purchased  from  Dr.  E.  W.  Bigelow,  Stamford,  Mass.,  for  ten  cents 
per  box.  The  purpose  of  these  experiments  is  to  show  that  plants  require  no  food  until  that 
in  the  seed  is  exhausted,  after  which  they  will  die  if  food  is  not  supplied  to  the  roots.  The 
maples  will  be  found  to  possess  two  types  of  flowers,  the  staminate  and  pistillate,  each  borne 
upon  separate  trees.  The  flower-dust  (pollen)  is  being  carried  from  one  to  the  other  by  the 
bees.  By  collecting  flowers  a  few  days  apart  the  children  may  discover  that  one  of  these  types 
of  flowers  gives  rise  to  the  pairs  of  winged  seeds,  and  the  purpose  of  the  flower  becomes  under- 
stood. 

The  spring  gardening  is  for  the  purpose  of  getting  the  final  stages  in  the  life  of  the  biennial 
vegetables  that  were  started  in  the  spring  of  the  third  grade,  the  rearing  of  nut  trees  for  the 
school  grounds  and  home,  to  teach  some  of  the  elementary  principles  of  agriculture  and  to 
get  the  children  interested  in  the  rearing  of  flowers.  Children  should  be  encouraged  to  start 
small  gardens  at  home  which  should  be  visited  by  the  teacher.  Competitive  flower  rearing, 
as  described  in'  Hodge's  Nature  Study,  pages  94  to  100,  will  add  zest  to  the  work.  Distribute 
an  equal  number  of  seeds  to  those  willing  to  participate  and  have  the  plants  grown  in  pots  so 
that  the  best  may  be  brought  to  school  for  the  final  exhibit.  Have  the  plants  numbered 
instead  of  named,  appoint  judges  and  award  some  simple  prizes.  If  the  nuts  do  not  sprout 
promptly  enough  a  search  beneath  the  parent  trees  will  usually  reveal  some  that  are  sprouting 
and  these  may  be  used.  To  the  list  given  in  the  outline  there  may  be  added  other  nuts,  as 
the  butternut,  sweet  chestnut,  hazel,  etc.  A  good  sized  bed  of  nasturtiums  is  desired  for  the 
work  of  the  fall.  To  furnish  practice  in  transplanting  beds  of  wild  flowers  which  grow  from 
bulbs  may  be  made  a  part  of  the  garden;  adder  tongue,  spring  beauty,  Jack-in-the-pulpit, 
trillium,  leek,  etc.  In  studying  the  question  of  adaptation  of  plants  to  certain  soils  similar 
plants  may  be  grown  in  different  soils,  starting  with  the  seeds  and  otherwise  treated  just  alike. 
Differences  should  be  carefully  looked  for  and,  as  far  as  possible,  explained. 

In  the  meteorological  work  recommended  for  the  three  preceding  grades  no  individual 
records  have  been  kept.  It  is  now  recommended  that  each  pupil  keep  a  record  in  a  suitable 
note-book  of  the  temperature  taken  just  at  the  beginning  of  the  afternoon  session,  of  the 
direction, of  the  wind  at  this  time  and  the  amount  of  rain  or  snow  for  the  previous  twenty-four 
hours.  These  observations  may  be  made  by  special  committees  of  the  pupils  and  as  far  as 
feasible  verified  by  the  others.  For  certain  months  the  construction  of  temperature  curves 
upon  "cross-ruled"  paper  will  be  found  valuable,  similar  to  the  charts  described  for  the  third 
grade.  From  the  children's  records  determine  the  prevailing  wind  for  each  month  and  for 
the  seasons  and  school  year.  Observe  the  shifting  of  the  winds  as  the  storms  pass  over  the 
region  and  see  whether  any  general  conclusions  can  be  reached.  Omit  any  attempt  at 
explanation.  Collect  all  the  weather  proverbs,  signs  and  sayings  current  in  the  community 
and  test  each  one  as  often  as  possible.  Classify  them  into  sets  which  seem  to  be  reliable, 
doubtful  and  unreliable. 

HELPFUL  LITERATURE. 

1.  Handbook  of  Nature  Study — Lange.     Outlines  on  squirrel  and  rabbit. 

2.  Object  Lessons  in  Elementary  Science — Murche,  Vol.  I.,  Macmillan  &  Co.,  1902. 

3.  Science  Readers — Murche,  No.  II.     Outline  on  rabbit.     Macmillan  &  Co.,  1896. 

4.  Squirrels  and  Other  Fur  Bearers — Burroughs.     Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co.,  1901. 

5.  Ways  of  Wood  Folk — Long.     Ginn  &  Co.,  1902.     Rabbit  and  beaver. 

56 


I 


6.  Wild  Neighbors — Ingersoll.     Macmillan  &  Co.,  1897. 

7.  Country  Cousins — Ingersoll.     Harper  Bros. 

8.  Four  Footed  Americans— Wright.     Macmillan  &  Co. 

9.  Wild  Animals  I  Have  Known— Seton-Thompson.     Scribner's  Sons,  1900.     Raggylug  and  Molly. 

10.  Popular  Natural  History — Wood.     Porter  &  Coates. 

11.  Friends  Worth  Knowing — Ingersoll.     Harper  Bros.,  1880.     Wild  mice. 

12.  Familiar  Trees  and  their  Leaves — Mathews.     Appleton  &  Co.,  1897. 

13.  Stories  of  the  Trees — Dyson.     Nelson  &  Sons,  1890. 

14.  Trees  in  Prose  and  Poetry — Stone  and  Fickett.     Ginn  &  Co.,  1902. 

15.  The  Oak— Ward.     Appleton  &  Co.,  1900. 

16.  Leaves  and  Acorns  of  our  Common  Oaks.     Wyman.     Cornell  Leaflet  No.  8. 

17.  First  Book  of  Forestry — Roth.     Ginn  &  Co.,  1902. 

18.  Domestic  Science  in  Grammar  Grades — Wilson.     Macmillan  &  Co.,  1900. 

19.  Woman's  Share  in  Primitive  Culture — Mason.     Appleton  &  Co.,  1894. 

20.  Story  of  Wheat — Halifax.     World's  Events  Publishing  Co.,  1906. 

21.  Elements  of  the  Theory  and  Practice  of  Cookery— Williams  &  Fisher.     Macmillan  &  Co.,  1901. 

22.  Bread  and  Bread  Making.     Farmer's  Bulletin  No.  112. 

23.  School  Sanitation  and  Decoration — Burrage  &  Bailey.     Heath  &  Co.,  1900. 

24.  Graded  Lessons  in  Physiology  and  Hygiene — Krohn.     Appleton  &  Co.,  1906. 

25.  School  Hygiene — Shaw.     Macmillan  &  Co.,  1901. 

26.  Story  of  Germ  Life — Conn.     Appleton  &  Co.,  1897. 

27.  Our  Bodies  and  How  We  Live — Blaisdell.     Ginn  &  Co. 

28.  How  to  Make  Pottery — White.     Doubleday,  Page  &  Co.,  1904. 

29.  Real  Things  in  Nature — Holden.     Macmillan  &  Co.,  1903. 

30.  Nature  Study  with  Common  Things — Carter.     American  Book  Co.,  1904. 

31.  Natural  History  Lessons — Black  &  Carter.     Holt  &  Co.,  1892. 

32.  The  Maple  Sugar  Industry — Fox  &  Hubbard.     United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  1905. 

33.  Great  American  Industries — Rocheleau,   Volumes  II  and  III.     Flanagan,  1901. 

34.  Life  on  the  Farm — Sheperd.     Flanagan,  1901. 

35.  The  Great  World's  Farm — Gaye.     Macmillan  &  Co  ,  1894. 

36.  Lessons  with  Plants — Bailey.     Macmillan  &  Co.,  1902. 

37.  The  Soil — King.     Macmillan  &  Co.,  1895. 

38.  How  Crops  Feed — Johnson.     Orange  Judd  Co.,  1883. 

39.  Lessons  in  Botany — Flower  and  Fruit.     Newell.     Ginn  &  Co.,  1893. 

40.  First  Studies  in  Plant  Life — Atkinson.     Ginn  &  Co.,  1902. 

41.  Nature  Study — Hodge.     Flower  rearing  and  forestry. 

42.  Tree  Planting  on  Rural  School  Grounds— Farmer's  Bulletin  No.  134. 

43.  About  the  Weather — Harrington.     Appleton  &  Co. ,  1899. 

See  also  Third  Grade  list  upon  Agriculture. 

Fifth  Grade.     Communal  Phase.     Age  of   Co-operation   and    Mutual    Helpfulness. 

CENTRAL  FALL  THOUGHT;— Community  Living  and  Thrift. 

Grasshopper  studied  afield  and  indoors,  as  to  structure,  habits,  adaptation,  food,  and  enemies. 
Shiftlessness   of  insect,  failure  to  provide  a  home,  to  co-operate  with  fellows,  to  store 

food  and  resulting  consequences. 
Varieties  of  grasshoppers,  crickets,  katy-dids,  etc. 
The  hive  bee  studied  afield  and  in  glass  observation  hive  as  to  structure, 

habits,  adaptation,  food  and  enemies. 
Industry,  co-operation,  patience,  thrift,  loyalty,  a  home  and  abundant  food  supply. 

Contrast  with  condition  of  grasshopper. 
A  study  of  bees-wax;    color,  odor,   taste,  feel,   plasticity,  lightness   and  melting  temperature. 

How  produced  and  use  in  making  comb. 
Study  of  some  old  comb,  shape,  size,  arrangement  and  use  of  cells. 

Physical  properties  and  source  of  honey. 
Propolis  upon  old  frames;  its  nature,  source  and  use  by  bees. 

Along  with   the  above   work  take  up   the  nasturtium   in   the  school   gardens.     Study  entire 
plants  and  end  with  flowers;  color,  odor,  shape,  position,    parts,    markings, 

fringes,  nectar  in  spur. 

Observe  how  many  different  kinds  of  insects  visit  the  flower. 
Starting  with  young  flowers  in  water,  have  each  child  discover  how  the  stamens 

behave  and  finally  the  pistil. 
Meaning  of  this  behavior  and  explanation  of  the  flower  characteristics. 

Idea  of  cross  pollination  but  not  fertilization. 
Follow  individual  flowers  through  to  the  seeds. 

57 


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Find  other  fall  flowers  Upon  which  the  bees  are  working  and  study  their  structure. 

Contrast  the  bee  and  grasshopper  as  to  their  importance  to  the  plant  world  and  to  man. 

Study  those  devices  for  securing   seed  distribution  in  which  the  agency  of  animals  an  d  man 

is  employed. 

Height  of  such  plants,  position  of   seeds,  ease  of  detachment,    ability  to  cling;  how 

the  seed  reaches  the  ground;  type  of  animal  needed. 

Search  for  trees  with  any  such  devices. 

School  savings  bank  to  encourage  thrift. 

CENTRAL  WINTER  THOUGHT;— Man's  Protection  Against  Cold  by  Fire. 

Develop  physical  properties  of  carbon  from  charcoal. 

Make  charcoal  from  pine  splinters  by  heating  in  a  test-tube. 

Describe  manufacture  upon  a  commercial  scale. 

Discuss  various  uses  of  charcoal. 
From  washed  specimens  study  hard  and  soft  coal. 
In  soft  coal  find  traces  of  plant  structure  and  explain  origin. 
Coal  deposits  in  the  United  States,  its  mining  and  transportation. 

Importance  of  coal  in  the  home,  school  and  factory. 
Our  dependence  upon  the  miner  and  his  arduous  and  dangerous  life. 

Illustrate  method  of  making  coal  gas  with  clay  pipe. 
Visit  gas  works,  if  practicable,  and  get  samples  of  coal,  coke,  tar,  etc. 

Origin  of  natural  gas  and  petroleum. 
Combustion  a  union  of  carbon  and  oxygen  with  evolution  of  heat;  wood,  charcoal,  coal,  coke, 

candles,  kerosene  lamps  and  gas. 
Properties  of  carbon-dioxide  gas  and  danger  to  life.     L,itne  water  test. 

The  smothering  of  incipient  fires;  home  and  clothing. 
Investigate  methods  of  heating  school  and  home;  stoves,  furnaces,  steam,  hot  water. 

Fire  getting  by  means  of  matches.     Gunpowder  and  explosives. 
Effect  of  heat  upon  liquids;  expansion  and  evaporation.     Condensation. 
Application  to  clouds,  fogs,  rain,  dew  and  frost.     Saturation  and  dew  point. 

Principle  of  thermometer  explained. 

Effect  of  heat  upon  solids;  expansion  and  melting.     Application. 
Effect  of  heat  upon  air;  expansion  and  production  of  vertical  currents. 

Hot  air  balloons  and  hot  air  wheels. 
Application  of  principles  in  the  ventilation  of  rooms. 
Introduce  a  very  simple  barometer  and  explain  its  use. 
By  charring  small  bits  discover  that  carbon  is  a  common  ingredient  of  practically  all  our 

foods;  starch,  sugar,  meat,  fruits,  etc. 
Present  respiration  as  a  process  of  combustion  by  which  the  body  is  warmed.     Animals  and 

man. 
Test  breath  with  lime  water,  and  a  jar  of  it  with  a  lighted  candle. 

Organs  of  respiration;  the  lungs  and  skin. 

Waste  matters  exhaled  and  necessity  for  pure  air. 

Regulation  of  the  temperature  of  the  body  by  evaporation. 

Colds,  influenza,  pneumonia  and  consumption. 

The  respiratory  process  in  germinating  seeds,  the  giving  off  of  heat  and  production 

of  carbon-dioxide. 

CENTRAL  SPRING  THOUGHT;— Animal  and  Plant  Co-operation. 

The  study  of  the  bee  continued  with  the  observation  hive. 
The  rearing  of  young  and  the  life  history  directly  observed. 
The  queen  the  mother  of  the  colony  and  the  devotion  of  her  children. 
The  gathering  of  bee  bread  and  the  work  of  the  nurse  bees. 

The  gentlemen  bees  of  the  colony. 

Making  comb,  gathering  nectar,  cleaning,  guarding  and,  in  the  late  spring,   ventilating  and 

swarming.     Fate  of  the  drones. 

58 


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Study  ants  afield  and  in  school  nest. 
Members  of  the  ant  community  and  their  duties. 

Stories  of  slave  making  and  agricultural  ants. 

Search  upon  shrubbery  and  grape  vines  for  ants'  cows  (aphids). 

Why  ants  are  not  welcome  in  flowers  and  devices  in  nasturtium  to  exclude  them. 

Watch  ants  trying  to  enter  these  and  other  flowers. 
Industry,  perseverance,  courage,  self -sacrifice,  loyalty  and  willingness  to  co-operate  as  shown 

by  ants. 

Have  children  deduce  those  human  qualities  necessary  for  an  ideal  community.      Professional 

tramps  and  thieves  as  notably  lacking  these  qualities. 

Develop  the  impractical  nature  of  modern  socialism. 

Butterflies  and  moths  and  humming  birds  as  flower  guests;  mutual  adaptations  and  mutual 

advantages. 

Comparison  of  bumble  bee  with  hive  bee.     Importance  to  man. 
Find  as  many  flowers  as  possible,  wild  or  cultivated,  which  are  dependent  upon  animals  for 

pollination. 

Study  carefully  color,  shape  and  mechanisms. 

Study  similarly  the  tree  flowers;  horse  chestnut,  basswood,  catalpa,   locust,   etc. 
The  child  is  to  be  led  to  appreciate  the  purpose  of  the  flower  and  the  importance  of  insects  in 

making  good  seed. 
Compare  such  flowers  as  pine,  corn   and   grasses  with   those   studied,    note   and   understand 

differences. 

Competitive  flower  rearing  with  "Emperor  William." 
Budding  and  grafting  of  fruit  trees. 

SUGGESTIONS  TO  FIFTH  GRADE  TEACHER. 

The  work  of  this  grade  approaches  more  nearly  the  nature  of  elementary  science,  into 
which  Nature  Study  passes  by  imperceptible  gradations  and  from  which  is  to  be  evolved  the 
science  work  of  the  grammar  grades  and  high  school.  Grasshoppers  and  other  large  insects 
may  be  conveniently  kept  in  cylinders  made  of  wire-gauze,  closed  at  the  top  and  set  down  in 
&  box  of  moist  loam.  The  food  plants  may  be  kept  fresh  by  placing  them  in  wide  mouthed 
bottles,  or  fruit  jars,  sunk  in  the  earth  and  kept  filled  with  water.  The  grasshoppers  are 
partial  to  young  shoots  of  corn.  For  the  bee  study  of  the  fall  the  materials  needed  may  be 
obtained  from  the  nearest  bee  keeper.  Arrangements  should  be  made  for  setting  up  a  glass 
observation  hive  in  the  spring.  These  may  be  purchased  from  certain  dealers  but  are  very 
simply  and  satisfactorily  made.  If  manual  training  has  been  introduced  iuto  the  school  the 
children  themselves  should  be  permitted  to  make  their  own  hive.  If  not  yet  introduced  here 
is  an  opportunity  to  bring  in  some  work  that  will  appeal  to  the  child  more  strongly  than  the 
making  of  pen-trays  and  picture  frames.  After  the  observation  hive  has  once  been  used  in 
the  school-room  the  teacher  will  not  willingly  dispense  with  it.  Suggestions  will  be  found  in 
Hodge's  Nature  Study,  chapter  XIV.  A  firm  base,  with  four  strong  corner  posts  carrying 
grooves  for  the  insertion  of  heavy  window  glass  and  a  movable  cover,  fitting  snugly  over  the 
top,  comprise  the  main  features  of  the  hive.  Shutters  should  be  provided  to  exclude  the 
light  when  the  bees  are  not  being  observed.  It  will  be  convenient  to  have  the  glass  in  the 
sides  and  at  the  back  set  in  frames  which  are  hinged  to  the  corner  posts,  in  order  that  the 
interior  of  the  hive  may  be  easily  reached.  The  movable  frames  with  which  the  hive  is  to  be 
furnished  hang  from  thin  strips  of  metal  across  the  ends  of  the  hive  and  the  dimensions  of  the 
hive  will  be  determined  by  the  length,  height  and  number  of  these  frames,  which  are  to  be 
obtained  from  the  nearest  bee  keeper.  Six  or  seven  of  these  frames  will  give  a  very  satisfactory 
hive.  The  hive  is  to  be  screwed  very  firmly  to  a  strong  shelf  on  a  level  with  the  inside 
window-sill.  A  narrow  strip  of  wood  is  placed  beneath  the  window-sash,  having  an  opening 
opposite  that  provided  for  the  hive.  Flush  with  this  opening,  upon  the  outside,  is  a  small 
shelf  to  be  used  by  the  bees  for  alighting,  guarding  and  ventilating  purposes.  The  window 
is  to  be  fastened  with  a  hook  so  that  it  can  be  raised  only  as  desired.  The  hive  is  started  in 
May  by  being  taken  to  the  bee  keeper  who  will  insert  a  frame  of  brood  and  one  of  honey  with 
queen  and  all  the  bees  that  will  remain.  Empty  frames  with  "foundation  comb"  are  added. 
In  a  few  days  it  may  be  brought  to  the  school-room  and  placed  permanently  in  position.  It 

59 


will  require  no  attention  during  the  summer  except  to  be  screened  from  the  hot  sun  by  placing 
cloth  or  cardboard  between  the  hive  and  window.  If  possible  the  hive  should  not  be  placed 
directly  over  a  radiator  or  steam  pipes  as  it  will  become  too  warm  in  the  winter.  A  box 
carrying  empty  sections  should  be  placed  above  the  hive,  between  it  and  the  cover,  which 
will  give  the  bees  a  chance  to  store  honey  during  the  season.  Advise  with  the  bee  keeper  in 
regard  to  this  and  also  the  handling  of  bees.  Read  the  references  given  below.  Unless  a 
second  colony  is  desired  let  the  bees  swarm  at  will. 

The  temperature  at  which  wax  melts  may  be  obtained  by  floating  small  bits  upon  water 
and  heating  slowly.  Wax  is  beautifully  adapted  to  its  use  except  for  this  low  melting 
temperature.  Everything  pertaining  to  the  comb  is  well  worthy  of  study;  shape  of  cells, 
termination  at  the  bottom,  horizontal  position,  relation  to  one  another,  arrangement  in  double 
tiers,  ability  to  hold  liquids  (try  with  water).  Have  children  cut  from  cardboard  regular 
figures  of  3,  4,  5,  6,  7,  8,  9  and  10  sides.  Upon  the  blackboard  outline  these  figures  with 
chalk  and  endeavor  to  oover  a  portion  of  the  board  so  as  to  have  no  spaces  between.  This 
can  be  done  with  only  the  triangle,  square  and  hexagon.  Which  did  the  bee  select  and  why  ? 

The  work  with  the  ant  in  the  spring  is  quite  as  interesting  as  with  the  bee,  when  the 
young  are  being  cared  for.  A  simple  school  nest  is  described  in  Lubbock's  Ants,  Wasps  and 
Bees.  This  consists  of  a  heavy  base-board  in  which  is  cut  a  moat  around  the  outer  margin, 
supplied  with  water  to  keep  the  ants  from  escaping.  A  firm  post  supports  an  upper  platform, 
considerably  smaller  than  the  base,  which  holds  the  nest  proper.  This  consists  of  two  panes 
of  glass  separated  by  thin  strips  of  cork  or  wood  and  held  together  with  thick  white  lead,  a 
small  space  being  left  for  an  entrance.  Between  the  glass  fine  dirt  is  sifted  and  moistened 
and  a  cardboard  cover  is  provided  to  exclude  the  light.  The  nest  is  started  by  digging  into 
a  hill  of  large  ants  and  transferring  to  a  pail  as  many  ants  and  as  little  dirt  as  possible  and 
dumping  this  upon  the  base  board  of  the  school  nest.  Larvae  and  cocoons  should  be  procured 
and,  if  possible,  one  of  the  large  sized  queen  ants.  At  first  the  ants  will  rush  into  the  water 
in  which  they  are  helpless  and  from  which  they  must  be  rescued.  As  the  dirt  dries  up  the 
ants  will  discover  the  moist  dirt  in  the  nest  and  will  take  possession.  When  the  dirt  below 
is  deserted  the  entrance  may  be  temporarily  closed  with  paper  or  cotton,  the  nest  lifted  off  and 
the  base  thoroughly  cleaned.  Keep  the  moat  supplied  with  water,  restore  the  nest  and  all  is 
ready  for  study.  The  ants  will  need  to  be  fed  upon  syrup,  dead  insects,  moist  bread,  etc., 
and  may  be  kept  indefinitely.  As  the  dirt  dries  up  a  little  water  should  be  added  as  the  ants 
prefer  moist  ground.  At  the  close  of  the  school  year  the  ants  may  be  allowed  to  leave  and  a 
new  nest  started  again  in  the  fall. 

The  work  upon  the  nasturtium  should  be  taken  up  early  in  the  fall  and  carried  along  with 
the  bee  work.  The  temptation  here  will  be  strong  to  tell,  but  use  all  possible  restraint.  To 
illustrate  the  method  of  gas  manufacture  fill  the  bowl  of  a  clay  pipe  with  powdered  cannel 
coal,  seal  with  plaster  pans  and  strongly  heat.  If  a  rubber  tube  is  attached  to  the  stem  and  a 
glass  tube,  drawn  to  a  point,  is  inserted,  the  gas  may  be  burned  and  passed  through  water 
and  washed.  A  tinsmith  can  make  a  miniature  gas  tank  to  illustrate  those  used  by  the  gas 
companies,  or  one  may  be  improvised  from  baking-powder  catis.  Lime  water  for  testing  car- 
bon-dioxide gas  is  prepared  by  placing  a  little  lime  in  water  and  pouring  off  the  clear  solution. 
The  gas  itself  is  obtained  by  putting  hydrochloric  acid,  obtainable  at  the  drug-store,  upon 
marble  dust  or  fragments.  B)'  means  of  a  cork  and  tube  it  may  be  conducted  to  other  jars. 
The  effect  of  heat  upon  water  may  be  simply  shown  by  taking  a  flask  or  bottle,  corking  it 
tightly  with  a  cork  through  which  has  been  passed  a  glass  tube,  say  a  foot  in  length.  Fill 
the  flask  with  water  until  it  rises  into  the  tube  a  short  distance;  mark  the  height  and  warm 
the  water,  observing  the  effect.  Allow  to  cool  and  note  the  effect.  When  empty  the  same 
apparatus  may  be  used  to  show  the  expansion  of  air  as  it  is  warmed.  Place  the  end  of  the 
tube  in  water,  warm  first  with  the  hands  and  then  with  burner  or  lamp  and  note  the 
escape  of  the  air.  As  it  cools  note  the  ascent  of  water  in  the  tube,  representing  the  amount 
of  air  driven  out  by  expansion.  The  expansion  of  solids  is  strikingly  shown  by  the  ring  and 
ball  experiment  of  the  physical  laboratory.  Simple  apparatus  may  be  made  by  which  a  strip 
of  metal  presses  against  the  short  arm  of  a  lever.  It  has  its  application  in  the  breaking  of 
glass  by  sudden  cooling  or  heating,  removal  of  stoppers,  tops  of  fruit  cans,  laying  of  car 
rails,  etc.  The  barometer  used  should  be  of  the  simplest  possible  type  and  the  children 
should  understand  that  it  registers  the  varying  pressure  of  the  air. 

60 


The  gardening  in  the  spring  may  be  limited  to  the  making  of  attractive  beds  of  flowers 
especially  modified  for  insect  visitation;  nasturtiums,  hollyhocks,  snap  dragons,  butter-and- 
eggs,  salvia,  fox  glove,  sweet  peas,  iris,  cobaea,  datura,  orchids,  clovers,  buckwheat,  etc. 
The  meteorological  work  of  the  fourth  grade  may  be  continued  and  after  the  winter  work  is 
completed  the  study  of  clouds  as  to  their  formation,  types,  and  importance.  Daily  reading  of 
the  barometer  and  the  construction  of  pressure  curves  upon  the  same  sheet  as  the  temperature 
curves  in  order  to  discover  the  relation  of  air  pressure,  temperature  and  precipitation.  Notice 
the  winds  which  precede  and  follow  the  passage  of  the  areas  of  low  and  high  pressure.  Train 
the  children  so  that  they  can  begin  to  anticipate  the  arrival  of  storms  by  means  of  the  weath- 
er-vane, thermometer  and  barometer.  For  instance  they  will  discover  that  a  south  wind,  high 
thermometer  and  descending  barometer  generally  mean  a  storm  is  approaching;  while  a  north 
wind,  dropping  thermometer  and  rising  barometer  mean  bright  skies  and  fair  weather.  Keep 
a  record  of  predictions  and  result. 

HELPFUL  LITERATURE. 

1.  Insect  Life— Comstock.     Appleton  &  Co.,  1897. 

2.  Ways  of  the  Six-Footed — Comstock.     Ginn  &  Co.,  1903. 

3.  Elementary  Lessons  in  Zoology — Needham.     American  Book  Co.,  1895. 

4.  The  Honey  Bee — Langstroth.     Dadant  &  Son,  1896. 

5!  The  Life  of  the  Bee — Maeteclinck  and  Sutro.     Dodd,  Mead  &  Co.,  1901. 

6.  The  Bee  People— Morley.     McClurg  &  Co. 

7.  The  Honey  Makers — Morley.     McClurg  &  Co. 

8.  Bee  Keeping  and  the  Honey  Bee.     Farmers'  Bulletins  Nos.  59  and  i. 
o°  Ants,  Wasps  and  Bees — Lubbock.     Appleton  &  Co.,  1884. 

10.  Locusts  and  Wild  Honey — Burroughs.     Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co.,  1885. 

11.  Birds  and  Bees — Burroughs.     Houghton,  MifHin  &  Co. 
12°.     Flowers  and  their  Friends — Morley.     Ginn  &  Co.,  1901. 

13'  All  the  Year  Round,  Pt.  i,  Autumn — Strong.     Ginn  &  Co.,  1897. 

14!  Little  Wanderers— Morley.     Ginn  &  Co.,  1902. 

j,/  Seed  Dispersal — Beal.    Ginn  &  Co. 

16°  Seed-Travellers — Weed.     Ginn  &  Co. 

17.  Flowers,  Fruits  and  Leaves— Lubbock .     Macmillan  &  Co.,  1894, 

18°  Fertilization  of  Plants — Lubbock.     Macmillan  &  Co. 

19  Cross  and  Self- Fertilization  in  the  Vegetable  Kingdom— Darwin.     Appleton  &  Co.,  1882. 

20.  The  Corn  Plants,  their  Uses  and  Ways  of  Life— Sargent.     Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co.,  1899. 

21.  School  Savings  Banks — Fall.     Office  Supt.  Public  Instruction.  Lansing,  Mich.,  1903. 
22  The  Story  of  a  Piece  of  Coal — Martin.     Appleton  &  Co.,  1901. 

23.  The  Story  of  Coal — McKane.     World's  Events  Pub.  Co. 

24  Great  American  Industries — Rocheleau,  Vol.  I.     Flanagan,  1896. 

25  Coal  and  Coal  Mines— Green.     Houghton,  Mifflin  &Co.,  1889. 

26  All  the  Year  Round.     Winter,  Pt.  II.,  Strong,  1897. 

27  Longman's  Object  Lessons — Salmon  and  Woodhull.     Longmans,  Green  &  Co. ,  1894. 

28  Geological  Story  Briefly  Told— Dana.     Amer.  Book  Co.,  1875. 

29  Sketches  of  Creation — Winchell.     Harper  &  Bros.,  1870. 

•10  How  a  Candle  Burns — Cavanaugh.     Cornell  Leaflet  No.  2,  1898. 

*i"  Chemical  History  of  a  Candle — Faraday.     Harper  &  Bros. 

32  chemistry  in  Daily  Life— Lassar-Cohn.     Lippincott  &  Co.,  1896. 

a-i'  Elementary  Lessons  in  Physics — Gifford.     Thompson,  Brown  &  Co. 

ti'  First  Science  Book— Higgins.     Ginn  &  Co.,  1905. 

«'  First  Course  in  Physics — Millikan  and  Gale.     Ginn  &  Co.,  1906. 

16  First  Lessons  in  Physical  Science — A  very  and  Sinuott.     Butler,  Sheldon  &  Co. 

17°  Nature  Study— Jackman.     Holt  &  Co.,  1894. 

•*8  Systematic  Science  Teaching— Howe.    Appleton  &  Co.,  1894. 

V  The  Child's  Book  of  Nature— Hooker.     Harper  &  Bros.,  1883. 

40.  First  Steps  in  Scientific  Knowledge — Bert.     Lippincott  &  Co.,   1888. 

41  Cat  Tails  and  Other  Tales — Howliston.     Flanagan  &  Co.,  1895. 

42  Nature's  Miracles— Gray.     Baker  &  Taylor  Co.,  1899. 

4*  Elementary  Meteorology — Waldo.     Amer.  Book  Co.,  1896. 

44  The  Ocean  of  Air— Giberne.     Amer.  Tract  Society. 

45  About  the  Weather-  Harrington.     Appleton  &  Co.,  1899. 

46  School  Sanitation  and  Decoration — Burrage  and  Bailey.     Heath  &  Co  ,  1900. 

47  Handbook  of  Household  Science — Youmans.     Appleton  &  Co. 

48  Among  the  Moths  and  Butterflies— Ballard.     Putnam's  Sons,  1895. 

49  Moths  and  Butterflies— Dickerson.     Ginn  &  Co.,  1901. 

50  Nature  Study  and  Life— Hodge.     Ginn  &  Co.,  1902.     Budding  and  grafting. 

51  The  Nursery  Book— Bailey.     Macmillan  &  Co. 

52!     Practical  Garden  Book — Bailey.     Macmillan  &  Co. 

61 


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Sixth  tirade.      Mining  and   ftartufacturing    Phase,      Age  of  Industrial  Specialization 

THEME  FOX  THE  YEA.R;— Utilization  of  Natures  Inorganic  Materials  and  Energies. 

Fresh  water  mussels  in  a  large,  shallow  tank  in  school  room. 

Valves,  foot,  locomotion,  siphons,  currents,  mantle,  gills,  palpi,  muscles. 

Structure  of  valves;  epidermis,  prismatic  and  pearly  layers. 

Action  of  dilute  acid  upon  each.     Lime  carbonate. 

Structure  and  formation  of  pearls. 
A  collection  of  oyster  shells  for  comparison  with  mussel. 

Test  with  acid  snail  shells  and  coral  fragments. 
Limestone  the  product  of  shell  and  coral  accumulation. 
Properties  of  limestone,  varieties,  uses,  distribution  over  state. 

Formation  of  marble,  varieties,  uses. 

Calcite;  color,  luster,  weight,  cleavage,  hardness,  streak,  action  of  acid. 
Study  the  incrustation  from  tea  kettle  and  then  calcareous  tufa,  hot  springs  formation, 

stalactites  and  stalagmites. 
Precipitated  chalk  from  lime  water  and  carbon  dioxide.     Use  in  tooth  powder. 

Erosion  by  running  water,  wave  action  and  ice-sheets. 
Sorting  power  of  water  and  accumulation  of  sand  and  clay  deposits. 
Sandstone;  formation,  varieties,  properties,  uses  and  distribution  overstate 

Clay,  shale  and  slate;  properties  and  uses. 

The  formation  and  properties  of  chalk  and  marl. 

Cement  manufacture  from  clay  or  shale  and  limestone  or  marl. 

Uses  of  cement;  sidewalks,  curbing,  bridges,  houses,  etc. 

Galenite  studied  as  was  calcite;  reduction  to  lead  on  charcoal. 

Properties  and  uses  of  lead.      Comparison  with  ore. 

General  properties  of  limonite,  hematite  and  magnetite,  including  effect  with  magnet. 
The  alteration  in  limonite  and  hematite  by  heating  upon  charcoal. 
The  reduction  of  iron  ores  to  iron,  its  properties  and  uses. 

The  manufacture  and  uses  of  steel. 
Loadstone,  magnetism  and  the  compass. 
Pyriteand  chalcopyrite,  properties  and  reduction. 

Native  copper,   its  properties  and  uses.      Color  imparted  to  flame  both  with  and  without 
hydrochloric  acid.     Test  the  chalcopyrite  in  this  way. 

Properties,  formation,  occurrence  and  uses  of  rock  salt. 
Baking  soda  and  soda  ash  from  limestone  and  salt. 
Uses  of  soda  in  baking  and  glass  manufacture. 

Principles  of  simple  lever;  fulcrum,  power,  weight,  arms,  law  and  various  applications 

in  quarries  and  mines. 
Pulleys  and  wheel  and  axle  as  types  of  continuous  levers. 

The  derrick  and  its  uses. 
The  principle  of  the  inclined  plane,  wedge,  and  the  screw. 

Supposed  method  of  building  the  pyramids. 
Modern  fire-proof  buildings  of  steel,  stone,  brick,  cement,  glass  and  slate. 

Properties  of  a  piece  of  dry,  cleaned  bone  ;  color,   lustre,  weight,   hardness,  manner  of 

breaking,  strength",  etc. 

Presence  of  carbon,  shown  by  incomplete  burning  and  production  of  bone  black. 
Complete  burning  in  a  stove  or  furnace,  and  only  mineral  matter  left.      Comparison  of 
burned  and  unburned  bone,  to  discover  what  properties  are  due  to  the 

burnable  (organic)  ingredients. 

Test  burned  bone  with  dilute  acid  to  show  presence  of  carbonate. 
Other  mineral  matter  present,  which  will  dissolve,  but  which  is  not  a  carbonate, 

(lime  phosphate). 

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Individual  estimates  of  amount  of  carbonate  and  phosphate  present. 
If  feasible,  weigh  a  dry  bone  before  and  after  burning,  to  get  amount  of  organic  and 

mineral  matter. 
Soak  a  sheep's  rib  in  dilute  acid  to  dissolve  the  mineral  matter  and  discover  the 

properties  imparted  to  the  bone  by  the  organic  matter  alone. 
Examine  the  bones  of  some  very  young  animals,  as  those  of  a  rabbit.     Conclusions 

as  to  composition. 
Bones  in  the  body  for  protection,  shape,  and  use  as  levers. 

Hygiene  of  and  repair  of  bones. 
Shapes,  structure  and  names  of  a  few  important  bones  of  the  body. 

The  nature  and  use  of  muscles  and  tendons. 

The  effect  and  necessity  of  exercise,  hygiene  of  muscles  and  principles  of  training. 
Nourishment  of  muscles  and  bones  by  blood.     Circulation. 

The  effects  of  alcohol  and  tobacco  upon  muscles. 
Location,  action  and  names  of  a  few  of  the  important  muscles. 

The  windmill,  a  type  of  wheel  and  axle  for  utilizing  the  energy  of  air  in  motion. 

The  water-wheel  in  the  same  way  for  utilizing  the  energy  of  running  water. 
Practical  study  of  magnetism  and  frictional  electricity.      lightning  and  the  protection 

of  buildings  by  rods. 
The  simple  action  of  electric  bells,  telegraph  instruments,  dynamos  and  electric 

motors.       Application. 

Visit  to  the  power  plant  or  electric  light  works. 
Simple  action  of  a  toy  steam  engine  and  application  to  stationary  engines, 

locomotives  and  boats. 

The  necessity  for  transportation  of  raw  materials  and  manufactured  products. 
The  great  railroad  lines  and  steamboat  routes  of  the  world. 
How  goods  are  shipped  and  how  people  travel. 
Stories  of  great  inventors. 

SUGGESTIONS  TO  THE  SIXTH  GRADE  TEACHER. 

The  purpose  of  the  work  above  alluded  to  is  to  introduce  the  child  to  the  present  highly 
complex  environment  in  which  he  is  living,  and  of  which  he  is  to  become  a  part.  His  interest 
in  the  lower  stages  of  culture  having  been,  in  part,  gratified,  he  will  take  kindly  to  this  work 
if  it  is  made  practical  and  brought  within  his  comprehension.  The  mussels  for  the  early  fall 
work  may  be  procured  from  the  ponds  and  lakes  of  the  neighborhood.  Although  present  in 
most  of  the  streams,  they  are  not  so  easily  found.  They  may  be  shipped  some  distance  in  a 
canvas  bag  and  are  very  easily  kept.  Those  that  die  in  the  tank  should  be  removed  in  order 
to  avoid  polluting  the  water  for  the  others.  When  the  studies  are  completed  the  live  ones 
should  be  returned  to  some  favorable  place.  Irregular  pearls  are  not  uncommon,  either 
attached  to  the  inside  of  the  valves,  or  embedded  in  the  body  just  beneath  the  beaks.  Oyster 
shells  may  be  procured  from  the  dealers.  The  weak  acid  referred  to  in  the  outlines  is  pre- 
pared by  taking  one  part  of  commercial  hydrochloric  acid  and  adding  four  parts  of  water. 
Although  not  strongly  corrosive  when  thus  diluted,  it  should  not  be  gotten  upon  the  clothes 
or  fingers.  It  is  promptly  neutralized  with  ammonia.  Limestone  charged  with  shells  and 
corals  may  usually  be  found  in  the  fields  and  gravel  banks.  The  various  rocks  and  minerals 
called  for  in  the  outlines  may  be  purchased  from  Ward's  Natural  Science  Establishment, 
Rochester,  N.  Y.  They  are  not  expensive,  and  may  be  used  over  and  over  and  passed  from 
one  grade  to  another.  The  state  geological  reports  may  be  consulted  for  the  distribution  of 
economic  rocks  and  minerals.  The  Mineral  Resources  of  the  United  States,  obtained  gratui- 
tously from  the  U.  S.  Geological  Survey,  Washington,  D.  C.,  gives  much  information  con- 
cerning the  distribution  and  output  of  this  class  of  materials. 

The  manufacture  of  glass  may  be  very  simply  illustrated  in  the  school-room  by  fastening 
(by  melting)  a  short  piece  of  fine  wire  in  a  small  glass  tube.  Turn  the  end  of  the  wire  into  a 
loop,  heat  in  an  alcohol  lamp  or  bunsen  burner,  and  dip  into  dry  soda.  Melt  that  which 
adheres  into  a  small  clear  bead,  and  while  hot  touch  it  to  a  quartz  sand  grain.  Reheat  and 

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observe  the  agitation  and  final  meltitlg  of  the  quartz  in  the  soda  forming  glass.  The  coloring 
of  glass  may  be  illustrated  best  by  making  beads  of  borax  upon  the  wire  and  adding  a  very 
little  of  some  substance  containing  cobalt  (blue),  manganese  (purple),  chromium  (green). 
For  this  work  each  child  should  have  his  own  wire,  and  have  access  to  the  lamp  or  burner, 
under  the  eye  of  the  teacher.  For  illustrating  the  use  of  Portland  cement,  a  supply  of  the  dry 
materials  may  be  secured  from  the  dealers  and  mixed  by  the  children  with  water  and  sand  into 
a  slush,  and  allowed  to  harden.  They  may  find  out  experimentally  the  best  proportions  of 
cement  and  sand  by  observing  which  gives  the  hardest  product.  If  desired,  a  mould  could  be 
made  and  some  building  blocks  manufactured.  To  get  the  lead  from  its  ore,  pulverize  the 
galenite,  mix  with  an  equal  volume  of  soda  and  heat  on  a  piece  of  charcoal,  using  a  regular 
blow-pipe,  or  one  made  from  a  glass  tube.  The  lead  readily  separates  into  small  globules. 
Fragments  of  iron  ores  are  to  be  similarly  heated  on  charcoal  without  any  soda,  when  it  will 
be  found  that  the  limonite  and  hematite  will  become  magnetic.  The  carbon  of  the  flame  and 
charcoal  withdraw  oxygen  from  the  ore,  thus  reducing  a  portion  of  it.  This  illustrates  the 
process  that  takes  place  in  the  blast  furnace.  The  common  toy  magnet  should  be  provided  for 
each  child.  Charcoal,  after  use,  should  be  dipped  in  water  to  keep  from  taking  fire.  Simple 
compasses  may  be  made  by  rubbing  a  needle  over  lodestone,  from  end  to  end,  running  through 
a  fragment  of  cork  to  float  it,  and  placing  in  a  dish  of  water.  Levers,  pulleys,  wheels,  inclined 
planes,  etc.,  may  be  borrowed  from  a  physical  laboratory,  or  purchased  from  dealers  in  physi- 
cal apparatus.  A  derrick  could  be  easily  manufactured  by  the  children  as  part  of  their  manual 
training  work.  Similarly  windmills  and  water-wheels. 

The  purpose  of  the  work  upon  bone  is  to  show  the  child  how  to  discover  its  most  impor- 
tant properties,  and  to  lead  him  to  appreciate  how  well  it  is  adapted  to  the  purpose  that  it  is 
to  serve.  The  bones  of  some  young  animal  that  has  died  a  natural  death  may  be  secured  and 
preserved  in  alcohol  or  brine,  and  used  year  after  year.  The  preparation  of  the  sheep's  rib 
should  be  made  each  year  by  the  children.  The  important  modern  inventions  for  utilizing 
energy  can  be  simply  presented  by  means  of  toys,  and  will  strongly  appeal  to  children  of  this 
age.  No  gardening  work  is  called  for  by  the  theme  for  the  year,  that  of  the  previous  grades 
serving  as  a  foundation  for  this  work.  If  the  work  in  agriculture  has  been  successfully  pre- 
sented, many  of  the  children  will  wish  to  conduct  gardens  at  home  for  the  supply  of  the  fam- 
ily, or  for  sale  at  the  market.  This  they  should  be  encouraged  to  do.  Many  vacant  lots  could 
thus  be  utilized  in  the  cities  and  villages,  which  now  yield  only  an  unsightly  crop  of  weeds, 
bones,  and  tin  cans.  The  civic  improvement  spirit  should  be  strongly  fostered  in  the  inter- 
mediate and  grammar  grades. 

For  the  work  in  meteorology  it  is  recommended  that  work  be  begun  upon  the  U.  S. 
weather  map,  and  that  the  work  and  importance  of  the  weather  bureau  be  understood  by  the 
child.  The  daily  map  for  the  use  of  schools  may  be  obtained  gratuitously,  and  a  case  for  its 
display.  Write  to  the  observer  at  your  nearest  station  for  information.  These  maps  should 
be  displayed  where  the  children  can  conveniently  study  them,  and  the  progress  of  the  "lows" 
and  "highs"  across  the  country  followed  from  day  to  day.  Isobars  and  isotherms  are  to  be 
understood  by  the  children.  The  arrival  of  these  areas  may  be  watched  for,  and  signs  of  their 
approach  noted.  The  work  will  be  made  more  real  if  dispatches  in  the  daily  press  are  read, 
giving  accounts  of  specially  noteworthy  climatic  conditions  in  certain  sections.  The  general 
eastwardly  movement  of  the  low  and  high  areas  across  our  country  will  be  discovered,  their 
places  of  entrance  and  departure  noted,  and  the  general  direction  of  the  movement  of  the 
winds  about  these  areas  understood.  The  methods  of  weather  prediction  as  practiced  by  the 
general  government,  should  be  explained,  and  the  importance  of  these  predictions  to  the  com- 
munity at  large  fully  understood. 

HELPFUL    LITERATURE. 

1.  Elementary  Lessons  in  Zoology — Needham.     American  Book  Co.,  1895. 

2.  Animal  Forms — Jordan  &  Heath.     Appleton  &  Co.,  i9o2. 

3.  First  Book  in  Geology— Shaler.     Heath  &  Co.,  1890. 

4.  The  Earth  and  Its  Story— Heilprin.     Silver,  Burdett  &  Co.,  1896. 

5.  Geological  Excursions — Winchell.     Grigg  &  Co.,  1884. 

64 


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rib  '{dJiowsJon  >.o3e 

'  d  bus  woi   ailJ  lo  jaarasvom  ^Ibi 

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. 


6.  Outlines  of  the  Earth's  History— Shaler.  Appleton  &  Co.,  1898. 

7.  Town  Geology — Kingsley.     Appleton  &  Co. ,  1890. 

8.  Rocks  and  Minerals — Fairbanks.     Educational  Pub.  Co.,  1903. 

9.  Great  American  Industries — Rocheleau.     Pt.  I.     Flanagan  &  Co.,  1896. 

10.  Longman's  Object  Lessons — Salmon  and  Woodhull.     Longmans,  Green  &  Co  ,  1894. 

11.  First  Lessons  in  Minerals — Richards.     Heath  &  Co. 

12.  Common  Minerals — Crosby.     Heath  &  Co. 

13.  Thirty-Six  Observation  Lessons  in  Minerals — Clapp.     Heath  &  Co. 

14.  Up  and  Down  the  Brooks — Bamford.     Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co. 

15.  Mineral  Resources  of  the  U.  S      U.  S.  Geological  Survey. 

ib.  Economic  Geology  of  the  U.  S. — Ries.     Macmillan  &  Co.,  1905. 

17.  Story  of  Glass — Hanson.      World's  Events  Pub.  Co.,  1906. 

18.  Drama  of  Glass— Field.     Libbey  Glass  Co.,  Toledo,  O. 

19.  Glass  Manufacture.     Pittsburg  Plate  Glass  Co. 

20.  A  Contribution  to  the  Natural  History  of  Marl — Davis.    Mich.  Geological  Survey,  Vol.  8,  pt.  3,  p.  65,  1903. 

21.  The  Portland- Cement  Industry  in  Michigan — Russell.     U.  S.  Geol.  Survey,  22nd  Rep.,  pt.  3,  p.  629,  1902. 

22.  Elementary  Meteorology — Waldo.     Amer.  Book  Co.,  1896. 

23.  About  the  Weather — Harrington.     Appleton  &  Co.,  1899. 

24.  The  Human  Body— Martin.     Holt  &  Co.,  1895. 

25.  How  to  Keep  Well— Blaisdell.    Ginn  &  Co. 

26.  Graded  Lessons  in  Physiology  and  Hygiene — Krohn.     Appleton  &  Co.,  1906. 

27.  How  to  Get  Strong — Blaikie.     Harper  &  Bros. ,  1879. 

28.  Physical  Training  for  Children — Hancock.     Putnam's  Sons,  1904. 
29  Nature  Study — Jackmau.     Holt  &  Co.,  1894. 

30.  First  Lessons  in  Physical  Science — Avery  and  Sinnott.      Butler,  Shelden  &  Co. 

31.  Physical  Science  at  Home — Trowbridge.     Appleton  &  Co.,  1898. 

32.  The  Transportation  and  Lifting  of  Heavy  Bodies  by  the  Ancients — Watkins.      Smithsonian  Rep.    for 

1898,  p.  615. 

33.  Boy's  Book  of  Inventions — Baker.     McClure,  Phillips  &  Co. 

34.  Stories  of  Invention — Hale.    Roberts  Bros. ,  1895. 

35.  A  Study  of  Elementary  Magnetism  and  Electricity  by  Experiment — St.  John.     T.  M.  St.  John,  1900. 

36.  Things  a  Boy  Should  Know  about  Electricity.     St.  John.     T.  M.  St.  John,  1900. 

37.  The  How  and  Why  of  Electricity — Child.      Electrical  Review,  1905. 

38.  Electricity  in  Modern  Life— Tunzelmann.     Scribner  &  Welford,  1890. 

39.  A  Century  of  Electricity — Mendenhall.     Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co.,  1887. 

LIST  OF  PERIODIC  PUBLICATIONS. 

1.  NATURE  STUDY  REVIEW.     30  Linden  St.,  Geneva,  N.  Y.     $1.00  per  annum. 

2.  BIRD  LORE.     Harrisburg,  Pa.     $1.00  per  annum. 

3.  CHILD-STUDY  MONTHLY.  A.  W.  Vfumford,  203  Michigan  ave. ,  Chicago.  $i  .00  per  annum. 

4.  AMERICAN  JOURNAL  OF  PSYCHOLOGY.     Clark  University,  Worcester,  N.  Y.,  $1.00  per 

annum. 

5.  NATURE  STUDY  LEAFLETS.     Cornell  University,  Ithaca,  N.  Y. 

6.  NATURE  STUDY  LEAFLETS.     Clark  University,  Worcester,  Mass. 

7.  ELEMENTARY  SCIENCE  LEAFLETS.     Agricultural  College,  Michigan. 

8.  LEAFLETS  ON  NATURE  STUDY.     Purdue  University,  Lafayette,  Ind. 

9.  FARMERS'  BULLETINS.     U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C. 

10.  PUBLIC  HEALTH.     State  Dept.  of  Health,  Lansing,  Mich. 

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